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吴老师股票投资理财
标题摘要内容
成为一位成功的股票投资人,你必须做到下述三点:第一,获得炒股的基本知识;第二,制定切实可行的炒股计划;第三,严格按照这个计划实行~

巴菲特致股东信1

www.gphztz.com | 作者:吴老师股票合作 | 发布时间: 2022-05-10 | 19414 次浏览 | 分享到:

 BERKSHIRE HATHAWAY INC.

波克夏海瑟崴股份有限公司

To the Shareholders of Berkshire Hathaway Inc.:

致所有股東:

一九七七年

?保险公司所提供标准化的保单是很容易同业模仿的,其惟一的差异在于信誉。(1977)


?在美国取得保险公司执照并不困难,所有的费率皆是公开的,商标、专利、地点、公司设立时间长短、原料来源这些皆不重要。(1977)


?依我们过去的经验显示,从公开市场所买进部份股权的价格远比整笔购并所谈的价格要低的许多。因此,就算在无法取得控制权的情况下,我们仍愿意进行投资取得少数股权,只要该公司能长期稳健地获利并反映在其市值与每年分配的股利之上。(1977)

一九七八年


?我不认为包含我自己本身在内能够「成功」地预测股市短期间的波动。(1978)


?纺织业低资产周转率与低毛利无可避免的造成低股东权益报酬率。(1978)


?当市场竞争激烈时,产品价格会随直接营运成本而非投入资金作变动。(1978)


?迟未退出纺织业的原因: (1978)
(1)该公司为当地非常重要的雇主
(2)管理当局坦诚面对困境并努力解决问题
(3)劳工体认困境并极力配合
(4)尚能产生稳定现金收入


?依我们过去的经验显示,要「找到」一家好的保险公司并不容易,但要「创立」一家更难。(1978)


?投资评断标准: (1978)
(1)我们熟悉了解(understand)的产业
(2)具有长期性的远景
(3)由正直且具能力者所经营
(4)吸引人的价格(这点很重要,很多个案便是因为这项因素,而无法成功)


?我们的政策是集中持股(Concentrate Holdings)。当我们决定了后便买进「一大笔」,而非这也买一点、那也买点,但事后却漠不关心。(1978)


?虽然我们某些部份的投资在会计上因采成本法,使得我们依比例应认列的收益,除实际分配的现金股利外,无法完显现出来,但这一点也不影响它们的「真实性」。(1978)


?我们可以接受被投资公司保留盈余而不分配,但前提是公司必须将之用在「更有利」的用途上,否则便应分配给股东或是用来买回公司股份。(1978)


?依我们过去的经验显示,一家高成本结购公司的经营者,永远找得到增加公司开支的理由;而相对的,一家低成本结购公司的经营者,永远找得到节省公司开支的方法,即使后者的成本早已远低于前者。(1978)


?与这群「乐在其中」并以像老板一样心态经营公司的专业经理人在一起工作真是一种享受。(1978)

一九七九年


?就短期间而言,我们一直认为营业利益(不含出售证券损益)除以股东权益(所有投资须以原始成本计算,否则若以市价计,将使得分母每年大幅波动而失去比较意义)所得的比率,为衡量单一年度经营成果的最佳方式。(1979)


?就长期间而言,我们则认为公司纯益(包含已实现、未实现资本利得与非常损益)除以股东权益(所有投资以公平市价计算)所得的比率,为衡量永续经营成果的最佳方式。(1979)


?我们判断一家公司经营的好坏,取决于其股东权益报酬率(排除不当的财务杠杆或会计作帐),而非每股盈余的成长与否,因为即使是把钱固定存在银行不动,也能达到像后者一样的目的。(1979)


?自接掌公司至今(1964-1979)的十五年来,公司每股净值以20.5%的年复合成长率由19.46美元成长至335.85美元。而这其中,我们极少运用财务杠杆(负债比低,保费与资本比低),亦很少发行新股筹资,基本上我们是利用原有的资金,总计前后购并了十三家公司,另外也成立了六家公司。(1979)


?我必须提醒各位的是,虽然20%的年复合成长率看似很风光,但我们仍须把通货膨胀率与个人所得税率(两者合称为投资者痛苦指数)列入考量,在极端的状况下,公司股东的购买力甚至可能不增反减。(1979)


?随着保险事业规模与盈余快速的成长,纺织业与零售业整个事业体的比重日益下降,然而尽管如此,这些部门的管理阶层仍不断地化腐朽为神奇,即使产业面临停滞不前的窘境,却能利用有限的资本创造可观的盈余,且大多是现金而非尽是增加一些应收款或存货。(1979)


?我们在纺织业也曾经过数度挣扎,你们的主席也就是本人,在数年前买下Waumbec Mills 以扩大我们在纺织业的投资,虽然价格相当划算,也取得一些价美物廉的机器设备与不动产,但即使我们再怎么努力,整个决策事后证明却是个错误。我们得到的结论是,所谓有「转机」(Turn-arounds)的公司,最后显少有成功的案例,与其把时间与精力花在购买价廉的烂公司上,还不如以公道的价格投资一些物美的企业。(1979)


?去年我们曾预估保险业的综合承保比率(Combined Underwriting Ratio)会上升几个百分点,有可能使得整体保险业界发生承保损失的状况,结果一如我们所预期,从97.4%上升到100.7%。我们也预期在1979年我们本身的承保表现会比同业平均好一点,事实证明从98.2%降至97.1%。展望1980年,一方面在整个业界表现将如去年一般将持续恶化,但另一方面,我们却无法像去年般表现优于同业。(但请大家放心,我们绝不会故意放松,以使得本人的预测成真)。(1979)


?再一次要感谢我们National Indemnity公司经理人Phil Liesche的杰出表现,为我们创造八百多万美金的获利与八千多万美金的保费收入,这在同业间并不多见,而或许你可能会发现这比去年的数字少了些,虽然我们常听到同业提及宁愿少接点保单也不愿亏钱作生意,然真正能贯策执行的并不多,但Phil却能真正作到,若保单合理他便签,否则一慨拒绝。我们不愿因为生意时好时坏而必须常常裁员,相对地,我们宁愿保持一点宽松的弹性,而不是让大家忙的要死,到头来却发现作的是亏本的生意,公司在创办时便立下此一理念,而Phil 从未放弃保持此一优良传统,我们也认为这是经营一家一流的产险公司必备的条件。(1979)


?由George Young 领军的再保部门,在将投资收益并入考量后,持续地给予我们满意的成绩,惟承保部份仍须改进。事实上,由于大笔资金持续投入这一行业,使得竞争相当激烈,保费水准一再下降,但新进者却勇于承担着极高风险而不自知,直到真正出事时早已为时已晚,因此预料在竞争激烈仍会维持一阵子的情况下,我们将暂时退场观望。(1979)


?从前大家认为承保比率通常会一年好、一年坏,1979年若差一点,则1980年便会好转。但我们却不这么认为,现在的低利率使得的业者会倾向牺牲一点承保损失,而试图在投资收益上弥补回来,这在过去高利率的时代是不可能发生的。因此我们判断,同业忍受承保损失的限度将较过去提高,这使得竞争更加激烈,预估未来五年此比率将提高至105%左右的水准。尽管如此我们认为保险业仍大有可为,而管理人员的素质良囿将是一大关键。(1979)


?最近这几年,我们花了蛮大的篇幅谈到集团保险业的相关投资,主要是因为它们的表现实在是相当优异。我们深深地相信,这些事业的经理人将会好好地运用其所赚的每一分钱,以创造更多的盈余。以下所列出的是我们市值超过五百万美元的股权投资,包括ABC美国广播公司、GEICO保险、华盛顿邮报等公司。最近我们相信1980整体的股票市场将会是最近这几年来头一次表现的比我们的投资组合好,但尽管如此,我们对持有的主要投资标的仍然感到非常满意,也不会因为某一特定年度股市异常的表现而作改变。(1979)


?谈了那么多股票投资哲学,我想应该换个话题,谈谈债券投资,尤其是因为从去年底以来发生了那么多的事。整个保险业界,因投资债券而蒙受了金额相当庞大的损失,虽然依照会计原则,允许保险公司以摊销成本来记录其债券投资而非已严重受损的市场价值。而事实上,这种会计方法却是导致更大损失的元凶,因为若是保险公司被迫以市场价格来认列损失,那他们将早一点注意到问题的严重性。更讽刺的是,有些产物保险公司因为通货膨胀的关系,决定将原本一年期的保单更换为以半年为一期,他们认为实在是无法衡量未来的十二个月内,医疗成本、汽车零件价格会是多少?而认为无法在通膨高涨的当时订定一年期的保费,结果主观地将期间缩短为六个月,但最荒谬的是,一转身他们却将刚收到的保费,拿去购买以三、四十年为期固定利率的债券,我们实在很怀疑,为什么长期固定利率的债券还能在市场上存在,当我们确信美金的购买力几乎每天都在变小。(1979)


?最近这几年来,我们的保险公司几乎未增加在那些单纯的长期债券方面的部位(Straight long-term Bond)(即不含转换权或任何可提供额外获利可能性的债券),即使有买进也是因为先前有到期或出售的情况,而甚至在此之前,我们也从未投资那些长达三、四十年的债券,顶多是较短期且备有偿债基金或是因市场缺乏效率而使得价格被低估的债券。然而,虽然我们较之同业稍具警觉心,却仍是不够的。「虽然半梦半醒,要比熟睡要好得多,但却不能保证你不会被熊吃掉。」若买四十年期的债券是个大错,那买十五年期的也好不到那里去,很遗憾的是,我们属于后者,更惨的是,我们也没有适时地把它卖掉,而眼睁睁的看着它们的价值日益缩水。(当然,事后回想起来,会觉得真是笨得可以,而或许你会认为要是去年我就看透这点那就好了)。(1979)


?所幸,最近几年我们所买进的债券大多附有转换权,使得这些债券实际发行的时间比其到期日要短得多,因为在到期前,我们可以要求转换为股份,使得实际损失要比一些产险或意外险的同业来的轻了许多。而且,由于对股权投资的偏好,也让我们在债券投资的部位,相对偏低。尤其部份的可转换债券,跟我们投资组合中的股权投资一样吸引着我们,我们预计可从中赚不少钱(而事实上,有些个案已开始获利),同时亦期盼这部份的获利能补足我们在单纯债券上的损失。(1979)


?当然,我们对债券的看法可能保守了些,低通膨的机率也不是没有,毕竟通货膨涨多是人为因素所造成的,也或许人们有一天真能有效地控制它,立法当局及有力团体应该也已注意到这个警讯,而采取必要的措施。此外,现今的利率已反应较高的预期通货膨胀率,使得新发行的债券投资者较有保障,这使我们可能错过债券价格反弹而获利的机会,然而就像我们不愿意以一个固定的价格预先出售公元2010年或2020年一磅喜斯糖果或一呎波克夏制造的布料一样,我们也不愿意以一个固定的价格预先出售我们未来四十年金钱的使用权,这如同莎士比亚笔下的Polonius 所说的一样: 「不要作一个短期的借钱者,也不要当长期的借款人」。(1979)


?今年将会是我们最后一次报告Illinois National Bank,而我们也很开心的向各位宣布在Gene Abegg优秀的领导下,银行的获利打破历年来的记录,去年的资产报酬率高达2.3%,约是同业平均的三倍,对于如此优异的表现,实在值得所有波克夏的股东给予Gene Abegg热烈的掌声,感谢他们自1969年成为波克夏一员以来所作的贡献。而如同各位所知,1969年银行控股公司法要求我们必须在1980年结束以前将之处份,事实上我们曾试图以分割(spin-off)的方式处理,但联邦准备局却坚持若是如此,则波克夏不能有任何一位董事或经理人在分割后的银行担任任何职务,即使以我们这个个案而言,没有任何一个人同时拥有两家公司40% 以上的股份也是如此。在这种情况下,我们只能探询出售该公司80%-100% 股权的可能性,但请相信,我们绝对会严格地挑选买主,而价格也不是惟一考量的重点,这家银行与其经营阶层待我们实在不薄,所以即使要卖,我们也要确定能以相同态度回报之。同时大家应该明了我们从出售这家银行所得的资金将来如果再转投资,其为波克夏创造盈余的能力可能永远无法与前者比拟。(1979)


?1979年波克夏在那斯达克上市,这表示在每天的华尔街日报证券版将可以看得到波克夏的报价,而在此之前,不管是华尔街日报或是道琼工业指数皆不会报导我们获利情况,即使我们的获利数百倍于它们常常提及的一些公司。而现在当我们按季公布获利状况后,华尔街日报会立即报导,这帮我们解决了一直困扰着我们的发布消息的难题。(1979)


?在某些方面,我们的股东是蛮特别的一群,而这也影响了我撰写年报的方式。举例来说,每年结束,约有98% 股份的股东会保留他们在波克夏的持股,因此每年年报皆延续前一年度,避免重复叙述一堆相同的东西,从而你们可获得一些有用的东西,而我也不会觉得厌烦。此外,约有90% 股份的股东其最大的持股为波克夏,所以许多股东愿意花相当的时间在每年年报之上,而我们也努力提供所有我们认为有用的信息给各位股东。相对的,每季季报我们并未花太多时间加以着墨,因为所有股东与经营者,皆以长期的眼光来看待这份事业,所以并不是每季都有新的或有意义的事需要报告。但当你们真得收到某些讯息时,是因为你们付费雇用的董事长-也就是我本人认为一个股东-亦即是公司老板,应该从经理人那边听到有关公司的状况与其如何评估此事。你在合伙企业所得的待遇,在波克夏这家公开公司一点也不会少。我们认为每年一度的年报,不应该交给底下员工或公关顾问处理便了事,而是应该以经理人对老板报告的方式去作才对,也就是像我们希望旗下被投资公司应该跟我们报告的一样。当然,详细的程度不一样,以免竞争者窥视,但大方向与诚挚的态度却是一致的。而事实上,一家公司是会吸引同类型的人成为其股东,若公司注重的是短期的成果或是公司股价的波动,则具有这种特色的投资人自会上门成为其股东,而若公司对其股东采取轻蔑的态度,最后投资大众亦会以相同的态度回报之。(1979)


?费雪(Phil Fisher)一位令人尊敬的投资专家与作者,曾比喻一家公司吸引股东的方式,就好比一家餐厅招揽客户的方法一样,餐厅可标榜其特色,如便利的快餐店、优雅的西餐厅或特别的东方食物等,以吸引同一性质的客户群,若服务好、菜色佳、价钱公道,相信客户会一再上门。然而餐厅却不能时常变换其所强调的特色,一下是法国美食、一下又是外带披萨,最后可能导致顾客的忿怒与失望。相同的一家公司亦不可能同时迎合所有投资大众的口味。所以我们对于一些公司总是希望自家公司的股票保持高周转率感到疑惑不解,感觉上这些公司好象希望原有的股东赶快厌倦而琵琶别抱、另结新欢,以使得新的股东能够抱着新希望、新幻想可以赶快加入。相反的,我们希望原有股东一直喜欢我们的服务、我们的菜单,而且常常来光顾,我们很难找到比原来的股东更好的新股东来加入我们的行列,因此我们期待公司的股份保持极低的周转率,这表示我们的股东了解并认同公司经营的方向与期待的未来。(1979)


?去年我曾说过公司的盈余会成长但股东权益报酬率可能会下降,结果正如我所预期,而展望1980年亦是如此,而若我预测错误,那表示可能会更惨。具体而言,公司营业利益三千六百万除以最近股东权益2.36亿美元(股权投资以原始成本计)的报酬率将会从1979年的18.6%向下修正,而营业利益本身很有可能也会较去年减少,其结果取决于处份银行的情况、保险承保获利的好坏和储贷业亏损的严重性。(1979)


?我们对保险事业持有的股权投资一直非常看好,在往后的数年内,我们预期这些部份投资股权将会持续贡献获利给母公司,大部份的个案皆属绩优公司且由优秀的人才所管理,而投资的成本更是价美物廉。(1979)


?本公司有关财务规划一向是属于中央集权,且决策集中于最高当局。由于极端授权管理权限予集团子公司或事业体的专业经理人,我们的集团总部占地仅1,500平方呎,约合42坪左右)总共只有十二人,刚好可以组一只篮球队,也因此管理上难免会出点差错,但同时扁平化的组织却能降低成本并加速决策时程。因为每个人都有很多事可做,所以每个人做的事也很多。更重要的是这使得我们能请到最优秀的人才来为我们工作,这是一般企业无法作到的,因为这些人就像是经营自己的事业般努力着。我们给予他们最大的信任,而他们所给的回报更是远大于此。(1979)

一九八0年

今年的营业利益为四千二百万美元,较从去年1979年的三千六百万成长,但期初股东权益报酬率(持有股权投资以原始成本计)却从去年的18.6%滑落至17.8%。我们认为这个比率最能够作为衡量公司管理当局单一年度的经营绩效的最好指针。当然要运用这项指针,还必须对所谓会计原则、资产取得历史成本、财务杠杆与产业状况有一定程度的了解才行。而在你判断我们公司的经营绩效时,有两个因素是你必须特别注意的,一项是对公司营运有利的,而另一项则相对上较不利。让我们先从好的那一面看起:
   无控制权之盈余(Non-controlled Ownership Earnings)
    当一家公司拥有另一家公司部份股权时,在会计上通常有三种方式来代表投资公司在被投资公司所拥有的权益,而其所持有的股权多寡将决定公司采用何种方式。一般公认会计原则规定若持有股权比例超过百分之五十(除了少数例外,像我们先前持有的银行股份),则投资公司须完全合并该被投资公司所有会计项目,包含营收、费用、所得税与盈余。像波克夏持有60%股权的Blue Chips Stamps,便属这一类,而其它40%的股份在财务报表上则以少数股权列示。而若是持有股权比例介于20%-50% 之间,像Wesco Financial 系由波克夏所控制但只有48%的股权,则在投资公司的帐上仅记录一个分录(one-line entry),承认对被投资公司依股权比例所认列的投资损失或利益。最后若持有比例低于20%,则依照会计原则,投资公司仅能认列被投资公司实际发放的股利部份,至于保留而不发放的部份盈余则不予理会,举例来说若我们持有一家X 公司10%的股份,而假设该公司在1980 年共计赚了一千万美金,若X公司全部发放则我们可认列一百万的利益,反之若X公司决定保留而不予发放则我们一毛钱也不能认列。我们强迫大家上了堂简短或者说稍微简单的会计课是因为波克夏的保险事业将其资源集中投注于第三类的股权投资(即小于20%持股比例)之上,这类投资近年来因为保险事业蓬勃发展加上股票市场出现许多不错的投资机会而大幅增加,而我们许多的被投资公司仅将它们所赚的盈余分配一小部份出来并反映在我们的帐面之上,但就经济实质面来说,那只是冰山的一角而已,以去年来说,光是保留在这些公司而未分配给波克夏的盈余,便比波克夏整年度的帐面盈余还高,而这在一般企业界并不常见,但我们预期这种情况在波克夏将会持续出现。 (1980)

我们本身对投资盈余如何认列的定义与一般公认会计原则并不尽相同,尤其在通货膨胀高涨之时更是如此,(但话说回来批评要比修改这套原则简单多了,有些问题早已是根深蒂固了),我们有些100%持股的转投资公司帐面上所赚的钱,实质上并不足那个数,即使我们可以完全地控制它,(理论上我们具控制权,但实际上我们却必须被迫把所赚的每一分钱,继续投注在更新资产设备上,以维持原有生产力),相反的我们也有一些仅持有少数股份而其所赚的盈余远超过帐面列示之数。因此对波克夏而言对盈余的认定并非取决于持股比例是100%、50%、20%、5% 或是1%,盈余的真正价值在于其将来再投资所能产生的效益,这与由我们或专业经理人决定并不相关,也与我们认列或不认列利益不相关。假设公司拥有一片山林,即使财务报表无法反映这些树木的成长,也无法掩盖我们拥有一片成长中的山林这项事实。我必须提醒诸位,我们的论点是突破传统的,我们宁愿将所赚的盈余继续交由不受我们控制的人好好发挥,也不希望转由我们自己来浪掷(讲到这理,忍不住休息一下顺便来段广告,若被投资公司将其所赚的盈余用于买回自家的股票,我们通常会报以热烈的掌声,理由很简单:若一家好公司其股票价格远低于其内含价值(Intrinsic Value),还有什么投资会比前者来的更稳当、更有赚头、更能促进原有股东权益的呢?企业购并的竞争性通常使得购并整家公司的实际价格高于取得企业的实际价值,而股票市场的拍卖性质,往往可以让我们以相对低廉的价格取得一家公司的部份股权。(1980)

长期企业绩效(Long-Term Corporate Results)
如先前所提的,我们以比较营业利益除以股东权益(股权投资以原使成本计)来评估企业单一年度的绩效,至于长期评量的标准则须加计所有已实现或未实现的资本利得或损失,而一直以来后者会比前者历年来的平均还要好,最主要的原因是前面所提那些无控制权的公司盈余持续增加而反映在其市值之上,当然市值的变化是起起伏伏且无法预测,更无法真正去量化到底数字是多少,有时一个错误甚至可能把公司十几年来的努力抵销掉,但只要市场回复理性,市价便会反映公司累积盈余的能力,有时甚至会在你的蛋糕上多得到一点糖霜呢。(1980)

在现有经营阶层接掌波克夏的十六年来,公司每股的帐面净值(其中保险事业的股权投资以市价计)已由原先的19.46美元成长至 400.8 美元,相当于年复合成长率 20.5% (事实上你「本身」作得也不错,过去十年来人体内所含矿物质成份之价值以年复合成长率 22% 增加),值得鼓励的是虽然我们也犯了不少错但仍能达到这样的记录。(1980)

我们的保险资金会持续地将资金投资在一些经营良好但不具控制权且保留大部份盈余的公司之上,依照这个政策,可预期的长期的报酬率将持续的大于每年帐面盈余的报酬率,而我们对此理念的坚信不移是很容易用数字来说明的,虽然只要我们把手上的股权投资卖掉然后转进免税的长期债券,公司每年帐面盈余马上就能净增加三千万美金,但我们从来就没想过要那么去作。(1980)

很不幸的,公司财务报表所记载的盈余已不再表示是股东们实际上所赚的。假设当初你放弃享受十个汉堡以进行投资,后来公司分配的股利足够让你买两个汉堡,而最后你处分投资可换八个汉堡,你会发现事实上不管你拿到是多少钱,你的这项投资并无所得,你可能觉得更有钱了,但不表示你能吃的更饱。高通货膨胀率等于是对资本额外课了一次税,如此一来使得大部份的投资变得有点愚蠢,而近几年来这个基本门槛,即企业投资所须最基本的报酬率以使得整件投资报酬为正可说是日益提高,每个纳”税”人就好象是在一个向下滑的电扶梯上拼命往上跑一样,最后的结过却是愈跑愈往后退。举例来说,假设一位投资人的年报酬率为20%(这已是一般人很难达到的成绩了)而当年度的通膨为12%,又若其不幸适用50% 高所得税级距,则我们会发现该位投资人的实质报酬率可能是负的。总之若只有外在的所得税而无隐性的通货膨胀税,则不管如何正的投资报酬永远不会变成负的(即使所得税率高达90%),但通货膨胀却不管公司帐面到底赚不赚钱,只要像最近这几年的通膨就会使得大部份公司的实质投资报酬由正转为负,即使有些公司不必缴所得税也是一样,当然这两者是交相存在在现实社会中。而以目前的通货膨胀率来看,相信以适用中高级距所得税率的投资人而言,将无法从投资一般美国公司获得任何实质的资本利得,即使他们把分配到的股利一再重复地投资下去也一样,因为其获利早已被隐藏的通货膨胀与直接的所得税吸收殆尽,而如同去年我们所说的一样,对于这个问题我们目前无解(明年我们的回答很可能也是如此),通货膨涨对我们股权投资的报酬实在是一点帮助也没有。(1980)

编制指数(Indexing)是一般认为对抗通膨的一种方法,但大部份的企业资本却从未这样做,当然帐面每股盈余与股利通常会渐渐增加,若公司把所赚的钱再投资下去,即使是无通膨也是一样,就像是一个勤俭的薪水阶级,只要固定把他所赚薪水中的一半存入银行,就算是从来没有获得加薪,他每年的收入也会慢慢的增加。理论上,企业盈余(当然不包括由额外投入的资本所产生的盈余)会稳定地随着物价指数持续增加而不必增加任何资金,包含营运资金在内,但只有极少数的公司具有此种能力,而波克夏并不在其中。当然本公司在-盈余再投资以求成长、多角化、卓壮的企业政策,碰巧也有减轻股东外在所得税负的效果,只要你不将所持有的波克夏股份转做其它投资,但隐藏的通货膨胀税却是每天你醒来就必须面对的问题。(1980)

下表显示波克夏依照各个公司持股比例来列示帐面盈余的主要来源,而各个公司资本利得损失并不包含在内而是汇总于下表最后「已实现出售证券利得」一栏,虽然本表列示的方式与一般公认会计原则不尽相同但最后的损益数字却是一致的: 其中波克夏拥有Blue Chips Stamps 60%的股权,而后者又拥有 Wesco 财务公司 80% 的股权。


 
 
 
 
1980
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Percent
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Underwriting
 
100.0%
 
6,738
 
6,737
 
 
 
3,637
 

Net Investment Income
 
100.0%
 
30,939
 
30,927
 
 
 
25,607
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
100.0%
 
(508)
 
(508)
 
 
 
202
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
100.0%
 
2,440
 
2,440
 
 
 
1,169
 

See's Candies
 
59.6%
 
15,031
 
8,958
 
 
 
4,212
 

Buffalio Evening News
 
59.6%
 
(2,805)
 
(1,672)
 
 
 
(816)
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
59.6%
 
7,699
 
4,588
 
 
 
3,060
 

Illinois National Bank
 
97.7%
 
5,324
 
5,200
 
 
 
4,731
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
47.7%
 
2,916
 
1,392
 
 
 
1,044
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
47.7%
 
5,814
 
2,775
 
 
 
1,974
 

Presion Steel
 
47.7%
 
2,833
 
1,352
 
 
 
656
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
(12,230)
 
(9,390)
 
 
 
(4,809)
 

Other
 
 
 
2,170
 
1,590
 
 
 
1,255
 

 
 
 
 
66,361
 
54,389
 
 
 
41,922
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
 
 
19,584
 
15,757
 
 
 
11,200
 

Total Earnings-all entities
 
 
 
85,945
 
70,146
 
 
 
53,122
 

?会计上因购并公司所产生的无形资产摊销(例如See’s Candies ; Mutual and Buffalo Evening News) 系以其它(Other)项目列示。


?Blue Chip 及Wesco 两家公司因为本身是公开发行公司以规定编有自己的年报,我建议大家仔细阅读,尤其是有关Louie Vincenti 和 Charlie Munger对联合储贷所作的改造。


?就像先前我们所提到的,不具控制权的股权投资其已分配的盈余以列示于保险事业的投资收益之中,但未分配盈余占本公司的重要性已不下于前面表列的帐面盈余,下表列示的是那些我们不具控制权的股权投资的持股:


 
 
 
 
Shares
 
Cost
 
 
 
Market
 
Unrealized Gain
 

Affiliated Publications, Inc.
 
(a)
 
434,550
 
2,821
 
 
 
12,222
 
9,401
 

Aluminum Company of America
 
(a)
 
464,317
 
25,577
 
 
 
27,685
 
2,108
 

Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company
 
(b)
 
475,217
 
12,942
 
 
 
15,894
 
2,952
 

General Foods, Inc
 
(b)
 
1,983,812
 
62,507
 
 
 
59,889
 
(2,618)
 

GEIGO Corporation
 
(a)
 
7,200,000
 
47,138
 
 
 
105,300
 
58,162
 

Handy & Harman
 
(a)
 
2,015,000
 
21,825
 
 
 
58,435
 
36,610
 

Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc
 
(a)
 
711,180
 
4,531
 
 
 
22,135
 
17,604
 

Kaiser Alumnium & Chemical Corp.
 
(a)
 
1,211,834
 
20,629
 
 
 
27,569
 
6,940
 

Media General
 
(a)
 
282,500
 
4,545
 
 
 
8,334
 
3,789
 

National Detroit Corporation
 
(b)
 
247,039
 
5,930
 
 
 
6,299
 
369
 

National Student Marketing
 
(a)
 
881,500
 
5,128
 
 
 
5,895
 
767
 

Ogilvy & Mather Int'l, Inc
 
(a)
 
391,400
 
3,709
 
 
 
9,981
 
6,272
 

Pinkerton, Inc.
 
(b)
 
370,088
 
12,144
 
 
 
16,489
 
4,345
 

R.J. Reynolds Industries
 
(b)
 
245,700
 
8,702
 
 
 
11,228
 
2,526
 

SAFECO Corporation
 
(b)
 
1,250,525
 
32,062
 
 
 
45,177
 
13,115
 

The Time Mirror Company
 
(b)
 
151,104
 
4,447
 
 
 
6,271
 
1,824
 

The Washington Post Company
 
(a)
 
1,868,600
 
10,628
 
 
 
42,277
 
31,649
 

EW Woolworth Company
 
(b)
 
667,124
 
13,583
 
 
 
16,511
 
2,928
 

All Other Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
26,313
 
 
 
32,096
 
5,783
 

Total Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
325,161
 
 
 
529,687
 
204,526
 

?(a) 代表全部股权由波克夏及其子公司所持有
(b) 代表由波克夏子公司Blue Chip与Wesco 所持有,依波克夏持股比例换算得来
从本表你会发现本公司背后的创造盈余的动力系来自于各行各业,所以我们只能约略地看个大概,譬如保险子公司约持有Kaiser Alumnium 3%和 Aloca 1 1/4 %的股份,在1980年我们光是从这些公司依持股比例可得约一千三百万美金(当然若将这些盈余实际转为资本利得或股利,则大约会被课以25%的税负),因此单单在制铝这门行业,我们的经济利益就大于其它那些我们可以直接控制且须详尽报告的公司。

GEIGO CORP.
我们在不具控制权的股权投资最大的部位便是持有该公司33%,约七百二十万股的GEIGO,通常若持有一家公司股权达到这样的比例,便必须采用权益法每年依比例认列其投资损益,但由于波克夏当初系依照政府部门一特别命令购买该公司股份,其中规定须将此投票权交由一公正第三人管理,故波克夏对其不具实质控制权。(Pinkerton 的情况也类似)然而认不认列损益对波克夏及其股东而言,并不影响其实质的经济利益,这些盈余的真正价值系来自于运用它们的GEIGO 经营阶层能力的高低。而关于这一点,我们再满意不过了,难以模仿的产业优势加上资金配置高超的技巧,GEIGO 可说是投资业界的最佳典范,如同你所看到的,我们的持股成本约四千七百万美元,分别在1976与1980年分两次投入,依实际配息情况,我们每年约从GEIGO 认列三百万元的利益,但每年实际可分配的盈余却达到二千万元,换言之,光是我们在该公司未分配的盈余就达波克夏帐面盈余的四成左右。另外我们必须强调的是我们完全赞同GEIGO经营阶层将其余属于我们的一千七百万保留起来未予分配的作法,因为在此同时GEIGO 于近两年内陆续买回自家股票使得在外流通股份由三千四百万股缩减至二千一百万股,大大增进了原有股东的权益,如此对待股东的方式实在是无话可说。(1980)

透过购并方式想要买下一家类似具经济特质与光明前景,且每年可创造二千万盈余的企业,至少得花二亿美金(有些产业可能还更高),而百分之百的持股更可使所有人掌握公司的生杀大权,而我们从未对保险业规定我们只能拥有绩优企业少数的股权(代表我们不能更换经营阶层、无法对资金做重新配置甚至处份公司)感到任何不妥。(1980)

过去几年我们一再提到对于购买具有转机题材的公司感到失望的看法,这些年我们大约接触了数百家这样的公司,最后不管是真正投入与否,皆持续追踪其后续发展,而最后所得结论是除了极少数例外,当一个经历辉煌的经营阶层遇到一个逐渐没落的夕阳工业,往往是后者占了上风。GEIGO却是一个例外,自1976年几乎破产的边缘东山再起,从经营阶层Jack Byrne上任的第一天起优异的表现,正是它获得重生的最大因素。当然GEIGO即使身陷于财务与经营危机当中,仍享有其最重要的产业竞争优势也是重要关键,身处于广大市场(汽车保险) ,不同于大部份行销组织僵化的同业,GEIGO一直以来将自己定位为低营运成本的公司,所以在为客户创造价值的同时也为自己赚进大把钞票,而即使七0年代中期发生危机,也从未减损其在此点的经济竞争优势,GEIGO的问题与1964年美国运通所爆发的色拉油丑闻事件类似,两者皆为一方之霸,一时的打击并未毁掉原本的经济实力,就像是一个局部而可切除的肿瘤,只要遇到一位经验丰富的医生,就能化险为夷。(1980)

保险产业的情况持续依我们先前所预期般地发展,Combined Ratio 从1979年的100.6 升高到1980年估计的103.5,可预期的是未来1981到1982年这个趋势将继续持续下去,业界的承保损失将向上攀升,想要了解个中原因我建议你读读Chubb Corp 的年报对产险业竞争态势所作精譬的分析,虽然报告不见得令人振奋,但绝对中肯。而不幸的是,保险业的阵痛将持续,事情的起因在于债券价格下跌,而会计原则允许保险业以摊销成本而非市价列示其帐面价值,结果导致许多业者以摊销成本记录其所持有二、三倍于其净值的长期债券,所以只要债券价格下跌超过三分之一便很有可能把公司的净值吃光,其中包括好几家知名的大公司在内,当然债券价格也有会回升,使得其净值回复,但同时却也有可能继续下跌。(我们深信对股票或债券价格所作的短期预测根本是没有用的,预测本身能够让你更了解预测者,但对于了解未来却是一点帮助也没有….),有点吊诡的是若持有的股票投资组合下跌有可能会影响到保险业的生存,但若换作是债券价格下跌却是一点事都没有,保险业者所持的理由可能是不管现在的市价是多少,反正只要到期日前不卖出,便能按照票面赎回,所以短期价格波动无太大影响。但真正的情况却是,业者很可能为避免认列损失因不敢出售债券而错失其它更好的投资机会,更严重的是,由于保险公司资金主要是来自于保户所缴的保费,由于产险的投保期间较短,一但保户规模缩减,资金流动不足时,将被迫出售部份债券使得损失浮上台面,更惨得是有些公司采取出售较有价值的股票或是不管保费水准有多低,照单全收以维持现有保费收入水准,这两种作法无异是杀鸡取卵,对于公司与产业长远的发展皆会产生重大的伤害。相对上,波克夏所属的保险事业,财务操作明显地较为稳当,债券部位相对较低(虽然资产与负债到期日仍不相称),充足的资金与弹性的投资操作,使得我们同样面对不当定价(Inadequate Pricing)的恶性竞争还环境时,仍能生存下去。(1980)

今年由Phil Liesche 所领导的National Indemnity 公司不断地超越自我,虽然保费收入持平,承保的利润却创同业新高,但预期明年保费收入将减少,而我们不会有任何的抱怨而他们的薪资考绩也不会受影响,对于公司创办人所定下的承保准则我们信奉不渝,并切实执行。家庭与汽车险部份则小有进展,我们将较不具竞争力的小额一般责任险转为金额较大的汽车保险。再保部份由于进入障碍较小,事前可先收取钜额保费但灾害发生与理赔时程却拉得很长,这种感觉有点像青少年第一次拥有自己的信用卡一样,致命的吸引力使得大笔的资金拥入这个行业,导致的结果是若某一年未发生大灾难,则往后几年的承保绩效便会变得很差,相反的,若有大灾难发生,则更大的灾难将会降临在保险公司身上,因为可能会有些同业无法履行与客户当初签订的合约,而George Young 在这一行的表现一向是一流的,在加计投资收益后,仍有所获利,我们将继续留在这个市场,但在可预见的未来,将很难有成长的表现。在家计保险(Homestate) 我们面临重大的问题,除了Kansas 的Floyd Taylor 外,其余的承保表现均在同业水准之下,其中Iowa 自1973年成立以来,每年皆发生钜额损失,直到去年我们决定结束该州的业务,家计保险概念其实也很大的潜力,但还需要很多努力才有办法实现它。我们的工人退休金部门(Worker’s Compensation)痛失英才,37岁的Frank 不幸去世,他天生就是个保险人,积极进取,努力上进,在短短时间内便改正在National Indemnity 该部门的缺失,当初介绍Frank加入的Dan立即接手其原有工作,而由Milt 所领导的Cypress 保险公司是我们在这项业务的主力,且表现一直相当优异,广为同业所仰慕与模仿,但其优秀的表现却是同业无法比拟的。总之保险业务量在1981年将大幅下滑,整体承保表现也不会太好。(1980)

去年我们缩减在纺织业的规模,虽然不愿意但却不得不结束Waumbec Mill,除了少数设备转移至New Bedford 外,其余连同房地产均处份掉,你们的董事长由于无法早点面对事实而犯了重大的错误,而在New Bedford 也淘汰了约三分之一的织布机,保留适合少量多样型的机器,而即使都不发生差错(这种情况很少),这些生产线仍不具投资效益,就产业循环而言甚至很有可能会产生损失。剩余的纺织事业,将划分为制造与销售两部门,各自独立运作,两者才不致于绑在一起,由于新购进中古130吋针式织布机,将使得我们最具获利能力产品的产能增加一倍,情势告诉我们纺织业又将面临艰困的一年,但我们在这一行所投入的资本将大幅减少。(1980)

Ben 在Associated Retail Store 的表现持续让我们惊艳,在零售业表现惨淡的一年,该公司盈余仍佳,且大部份皆为现金收入,而明年将将迈入第五十个年头,而Ben也经营这家公司整整有五十年了。(1980)

1980年底,我们完成了以波克夏约当的股份交换41,086股Rockford Bancorp(其持有97.7% Illinois National Bank股份)的动作,交换的方式准许波克夏股东维持其在该银行的权益(除了本人仅能维持80%),也可增加其在该银行的权益(相对地,其在波克夏的权益将减少),其中间的差额则由本人承受,最后的结果,本人在该银行的权益稍微减少,而在波克夏的权益则稍微增加,银行的经营阶层对这样的结果相当满意,Bancorp将成为一个只有65位股东,组织简单且不复杂的控股公司。(1980)

今年八月我们发行了12.75%,25年期(2005年到期),六千万美元的的债券,须于1991年起提拨偿债基金,这项融资案的主要的承销商自始至终皆提供我们一流的服务,不像大部份的公司,波克夏并不会为了一些特定的短期资金需求而去融资,反而我们借钱是因为当我们觉得在一定期间内(约略短于融资年限)将有许多好的投资机会出现,最佳的投资机会大多是出现在市场银根最紧的时后,那时候你一定希望拥有庞大的火力。(1980)

对于购并的对象,我们偏爱那些会「产生现金」而非「消化现金」的公司。由于高通货膨胀的影响,越来越多的公司发现它们必须将所赚得的每一块钱再投入才能维持其原有的生产力,就算这些公司帐面数字再好看,除非看到白花花的现金,我们对之仍保持高度警戒。符合我们标准的公司并不容易发现,(每年我们研就上百件的购并案,其中仅有少数能吸引我们的兴趣)所以对于我们现有规模合理的扩充并不易落实,但我们仍将持续多方尝试以保持波克夏的成长。(1980)

不论如何,我们皆期望保持适当的流动性,负债比例与结构适当并保留充裕的资本实力,虽然我们的投资报酬率可能因此保守的态度而打了点折扣,但这也是我们惟一能感到安心的一种方式。(1980)

Gene Abegg 我们长期持有的Rockford 银行创办人,于七月二日逝世,享年八十二岁,身为一位挚友、银行家与杰出公民,他是无可超越的。(1980)

你对于一个人将会有更多的了解,当你向他买下一家公司并请他以伙计而非老板的身份继续经营这家公司。在买卖开始前,他对这家公司了若指掌,而你却一无所知,卖方有太多机会可以欺骗买方,而当交易完成后,态度微妙的改变而模糊的认知会发酵,就像是求婚的过程一般,失望总是难免的。而当我们第一次碰面,Gene 百分之百坦诚,就像是其为人一般,谈判的开始,他把公司所有负面的因素摊开在桌上,另一方面,在交易完成数年后,他还会定期地告知你当初交易时未讨论到的地方。而就算是当他把银行卖给我们时已高龄71岁,Gene 仍兴勤工作更甚于以往,虽然极少发生问题,但一有问题便立刻报告毫不迟疑,你还能对这样的人多要求些什么(早在1933年该银行所持有的现金便足以立即清还所有存款) 他永远记得他是在处理别人的钱财,虽然这种正直不阿的态度将永远安息,但他杰出的管理能力将使银行在全美获利能力的表现上一直名列前茅。许多Rockford的居民告诉我这些年来Gene 给他们很多帮助,有时是金钱上的,但有时却是包含更多智能、同情与友谊,而我本身也从他身上获得许多,因为个别年纪与工作上的关系,我们益师益友,不论如何,这种关系相当特殊,我永远怀念他。(1980)

一九八一年

今年的营业利益约为四千万美元,较从去年1979年的四千二百万减少,期初股东权益报酬率(持有股权投资以原始成本计)亦从去年的17.8%滑落至15.2%。我们的新计划是让所有股东皆能指定各自所要捐赠的机关单位,(详如后述) ,今年度盈余减少90万美元,往后将视我们公司所得税负状况决定金额。

无控制权之盈余(Non-controlled Ownership Earnings)

去年我们曾详细的讨论无控制权盈余的观念,亦即那些我们无法控制或影响其盈余分配的一些被投资公司(我们很乐意与新股东或潜在股东讨论这项话题),而这部份的盈余完全未显现在波克夏的帐面之上,然而我们深信未分配且未记录的盈余仍将与那些我们控制的公司所赚的盈余一样转化成波克夏的价值,虽然它们是以波克夏不规则的已实现或未实现利得的方式呈现,但就长期而言,市场价格终将会与企业价值同步发展。整体而言,我们在无控制权公司的经济竞争力反而比具控制权公司的公司来得佳,可能的原因是在股票市场上我们可以合理的价格买到部份优秀企业的股权,而若要透过购并谈判的方式买下整家公司,其平均价格可能远高于市价。(1981)

我们的历史显示,我们对于拥有整家公司或仅持有部份股权,并无特殊偏好,而事实上我们持续投资大笔资金于其上(我们尽量避免小额投资,因为若一件事一点也不值得去作,那就算是把它作得再好也没有用),而经营保险公司与礼券事业也必须保持流动性。我们购并的决策着重于把实质的经济利益而非管理版图或会计数字极大化,(长期而言,若管理当局过度注重会计数字而乎略经济实质的话,通常最后两者都顾不好),不管对帐面盈余有何影响,我们宁愿以X 价格买下一家好公司10% 股权,而非以2X 价格买下那家好公司100% 股权,但大部份的公司经营阶层偏好后者,而且对此行为总是找得到借口。对于这种行为,我们归纳出三种动机(通常是心照不宣)
(1)领导阶层很少有缺少动物天性的,且时时散发出过动与战斗的意念。相对地在波克夏,即使是购并成功在望,你们的管理当局心跳也不会加快一下。
(2)大部份的公司或企业与其经营阶层,多以「规模」而非「获利」,作为衡量自己或别人的标准(问问那些名列Fortune 500 大企业的负责人,他们可能从来都不知道他们的公司若以获利能力来排的话,会落在第几位)
(3)大部份的经营阶层很明显的过度沉浸于小时候所听到的,一个变成蟾蜍的王子因美丽的公主深深一吻而被救的童话故事,而认为只要被他们优异的管理能力一吻,被购并的公司便能脱胎换骨。
    如此的乐观是必要的,否则公司的股东怎么会甘心以二倍的价钱买下那家好公司,而非以一倍的价格自己从市场上买进。换言之,投资人永远可以以蟾蜍的价格买到蟾蜍,而若投资人愿意用双倍的代价资助公主去亲吻蟾蜍的话,最好保佑奇迹会发生,许多公主依然坚信她们的吻有使蟾蜍变成王子的魔力,即使在她的后院早已养满了一大堆的蟾蜍。尽管如此,平心而论仍然有两种情况的购并是会成功的:
(1)第一类是你买到的(不管是有意或无意的)是那种特别能够适应通货膨胀的公司,通常它们又具备了两种特征,一是很容易去调涨价格 (即使是当产品需求平缓而产能未充份利用也一样)且不怕会失去市场占有率或销货量;一种是只要增加额外少量的资本支出,便可以使营业额大幅增加(虽然增加的原因大部份是因为通货膨胀而非实际增加产出的缘故),近十几年来,只要符合以上两种条件,虽然这种情况不多,即使是能力普通的经理人也能使这项购并案圆满成功。
(2)第二类是那些经营奇才,他们具有洞悉少数裹着蟾蜍外衣的王子,并且有能力让它们脱去伪装,我们尤其要向Capital City 的Tom Murphy致敬,他是那种能将购并目标锁定在第一类的公司,而本身具有的管理长才又使他成为第二类的佼佼者。直接或间接的经验使我们体认,要达到像他们那样成就的困难性(当然也因为如此,近几年来真正成功的个案并不多,且会发现到头来利用公司资金买回自家股份是最实在的方法),而很不幸的,你们的董事长并不属于第二类的人,且尽管已充份体认到须将重点摆在第一类的公司,但真正命中的机率却是少之又少,我们讲得比作得好听(我们忘了诺亚的叮咛: 能预测什么时候下大雨没有用,必须要能建造方舟才算。我们曾用划算的价钱买下不少蟾蜍,过去的报告多已提及,很明显的我们的吻表现平平,我们有遇到几个王子级的公司,但是早在我们买下时他们就已是王子了,而至少我们的吻没让他们变回蟾蜍,而最后我们偶尔也曾成功地以蟾蜍般的价格买到部份王子级公司的部份股权。(1981)

我们会持续地以合理的价钱买下整个公司,即使那家公司未来的发展与过去一般;我们也愿意以不错的价钱买下第一类的公司,若我们可以合理的相信他们就是;但我们通常不会去买那些我们必须替其作许多改变的公司,因为我们发现我们所作的改变不见得是好的。今年我们曾经几乎谈成一笔大买卖,那家公司与其经营阶层都是我们所喜爱的,但就是价钱谈不陇,若坚持买下的结果,股东的利益不见得会比买之前更好。整个波克夏帝国版图可能会变大,但人民素质反而会变差。尽管1981年我们并没有成功的个案,但我们预计未来仍能买到100% 符合我们标准的公司,此外我们有期望能有像后面报告所述Pinkerton这样投资大量无投票权的股权的例子,在身为次要的大股东的我们可获得可观的经济利益的同时,亦能帮助公司原有的经营阶层实现其长期的目标。我们也发现很容易从市场买到一些由有能力且正直的人经营的公司的部份股权,而事实上我们也从未打算自己去经营这些公司,但我们的确想要从这些公司上获利。而我们也预期这些公司的未分配盈余将会百分之百回报给波克夏及其股东,若最后没有,可能是出了以下几种差错(1)我们所指派的经营阶层有问题(2)公司的前景有问题(3)我们付的价格有问题,而事实上,我们不论在买进具控制权或不具控制权的股权时,皆曾犯了许多错误,其中以第二类误判的情况最常见,当然要翻开我们投资的历史才能找到类似的案例(可能至少要回溯至少二、三个月以上吧…),例如去年你们的董事长发表便看好铝业发展的前景,只是到后来陆续经过些微的调整,最后的结论却是一百八十度的转弯。然而基于个人与客观的原因,通常我们改正在对不具控制权的股权投资的错误要比对具控制权的来得容易许多,这时后缺少控制权,反而成为一种优点。而就像去年我曾提到的,我们在不具控制权的股权投资已经大到其依投资比例应分得之未分配盈余甚至超越公司整体的帐面盈余,且我们预期这种情况将会持续下去,1982年光是其中四家(GEICO、General Foods、R.J.Reynolds 及华盛顿邮报)加起来就超过三千五百万美元,由于会计原则使得我们在计算帐面股东权益报酬与单一年度获利表现时,无法将这些未分配盈余记入。(1981)

在衡量一家公司长期的经济表现时,我们保险子公司所持有的股票会以市价(扣除假设真的实现须付的所得税),而若我们前面所作的推论正确的话,那些不具控制权的股权其未分配盈余,虽然不规则但最后终究会找到路反映在我们公司帐上,至少到目前为止确是如此。当然若严格一点的话,还必须把债券投资及非保险子公司所持的股票以市价计算才更准确,然而GAAP(一般公认会计原则)并未如此规定,而且这样做对我们来说其实影响不大,而当其影响大到一定程度时,我一定会向各位报告。在GAAP的基础下,公司的帐面价值,自现今经营阶层接手的十七年以来,已从19.46美元增加到如今的526.02美元,约以年复合成长率21.1%增加,只是这个比率在未来将会逐年下滑,但我们期望它至少会高于一般美国大企业的平均水准。在1981年净值增加的约一亿二千多万美元中,约有一半要归功于GEICO一家公司,总得来说,今年我们投资股票市值的增加要比其背后实际代表的经济价值增加数要大得多,而要注意股票市值却不会永远朝好的方向走。(1981)

去年我们曾解释通货膨胀是如何使我们的帐面表现比经济实质要好看的多,我们对Fed(联邦准备理事会)主席 Volcker先生所作的努力使得现在所有的物价指数能温和的成长表示感谢,尽管如此,我们仍对未来的通膨趋势感到悲观,就像是童真一样,稳定的物价只能维持现状,却没有办法使其恢复原状。尽管通膨对投资来讲实在是太重要了,但我不会再折磨你们而把我们的观点在复述一遍,通膨本身对大家的折磨已足够了(若谁有被虐狂可向我索取复本) ,但由于通膨间断不止的使货币贬值,公司可能尽力的使你的皮夹满满,更胜于填饱你的肚子。(1981)

另外一项因素可能会对公司报酬率的热情再浇上一盆冷水,人们为什么要投资公司股权而非固定收益债券的理由,系在于公司经营阶层可运用这笔资金来创造比固定利息收入更高的盈余,故人们会愿意承担万一发生损失的风险,所以额外的风险贴水是理所当然的。但事实真是如此吗?? 过去数十年来,一家公司的股东权益报酬率只要超过10%,便能被归类为一家优良企业,所以当我们把一块钱投入到这家公司,其将来能产生的经济效益将会大于一块钱,(考量到当时长期债券殖利率约为5%,而免税公债则约3%),即使加计税负的话,实际到投资人手中仍能有6%-8%。股票市场认同这种道理,在过去的一段时间,一家股东权益报酬率达到11%的公司,其市价可以涨到约净值的一点五倍,而这些公司所产生的附加价值相当可观,然而那一切已成过去,但过去所得到的经验法则却很难拋弃,「当投资大众与经营阶层一脚踏进未来,他们的脑子与神经系统却还深陷于过去。」投资大众惯于利用历史的本益比而经营阶层则习惯用传统企业评价标准,但却不去深思其前提是否早已改变,若改变是缓慢的,那么持续的再思考便变得必要,若变化很大,则习于昨日的假设可能会付出极大的代价,而经济步调的变动是会令人窒息的。去年长期债券殖利率超过16%,而免税公债则约为14%,而这些收入直接落入投资人的口袋,在此同时,美国企业的股东权益报酬率约为14%,而且尚未考量落入投资人口袋前所须支付的税负(视被投资公司的股利政策与投资人适用的所得税率而定)因此以1981年的标准而言,投资一家美国公司一块钱所产生的经济价值还低于一块钱,(当然若投资人是免税的慈善机构,则情况可能会好一点),假设投资人系适用于50%税率,而公司把所有盈余皆发放出来,则股东的投资报酬率约略等于投资7%的免税债券,而这种情况若一直持续下去,等于是套牢于一长期7%的免税债券一样,而它真正的价值可能连其原始投资额的一半还不到。但如果把所有盈余都保留起来,而报酬率维持不变,则盈余每年会以14%的速度增加,又假设本益比不动,则公司的股价每年也会以14%的比例增加,但增加的部份不算是已落入股东的口袋,因为收回去的话需要付最高约20%的资本利得税,所以不管怎么说,还是比最基本的免税公债14%低。除非基本报酬率降低,即使公司盈余每年以14% 成长,却从未能收到半毛钱股利,对投资人而言,等于是一无所获,这对股东与经营阶层都是不怎么愉快的经验,而更是后者希望掩饰过去的,但不论如何,事实就是事实。大部份的美国公司把大部份的盈余分配出去,所以算是介于两个极端的例子之间,而大部份的美国公司的税后投资报酬率可能比投资免税债券还差,当然也有少数例外,但如今总的来说,美国公司的资本对投资人来说无任何附加的价值。但要强调的是,我并不是说所有的美国公司表现的比以往差,事实上,反而是比以前还好一点,只是最低门槛比以前提高了许多,主要的原因(但非惟一)是过去的通膨经验与对未来通膨的预期,而遗憾的是产业的前景很难提高本身的表现,而只能转而寄望门槛能够降低一点。而如果对于通膨的形成原因能有效抑制,门槛自然会降低,而美国企业的经济价值也能大幅改善,由不良的企业转为优良的企业。(1981)

当然有人会说若这家公司报酬率相对较高,那么把盈余留在公司继续投资下去有道理,但若这家公司报酬率差,为何不把赚的盈余分配给股东,让股东自己去寻找其它报酬率较高投资机会呢??(古经文亦赞同:有个三个仆人的寓言,老天爷让其中二个会赚钱的仆人,保留他们所赚的钱并鼓励他们扩大营业,而另外一个懒惰不会赚钱的仆人,则被严厉得逞罚并叫他把钱交给前面二个仆人管理/马修第25章。但通膨就像叫我们透过窥镜看爱丽丝梦游仙境一样,当通膨恃虐时,不良的企业被迫保留它所有的每一分钱,才能辛苦地维持它过去拥有的生产能力,实在是情非得已。通膨就像是寄生在企业体内巨大的条虫,不管被它寄生的主人身体状况如何,还是拼命的从他身上吸取养份,所以不管公司的获利到底有多少(就算没有也一样),帐上总是会有越来越多的应收帐款、存货与固定资产以维持以往的生意规模,主人的身体越差,就表示有越多比例的养份被寄生虫吸走。以目前的情况来讲,一家公司若只赚到8% 或10% 的话,根本不够拿来用于扩张、还债或发放实在的股利,通膨这条寄生虫早就把盘子清光光了,(而事实上,通常利用许多方法将无法发放股利的窘境掩饰住,例如常常提出盈余转投资计划,强迫股东再投资,或是发行新股,拿张三的钱发放给李四,要小心这种必须要另外找到金主才能发放的股利)。反观波克夏通常会因积极而非被动的理由而保流盈余再投资,当然我们也不能免除前述通膨的威胁,我们历史累计的报酬率21%扣除潜在的资本利得税后,持续地跨过那最低的门槛,但只能算是低空掠过,而只要在出一些差错,便可能使我们面临无法跨过门槛的窘境。(1981)

下表显示波克夏依照各个公司持股比例来列示帐面盈余的主要来源,而各个公司资本利得损失并不包含在内而是汇总于下表最后「已实现出售证券利得」一栏,虽然本表列示的方式与一般公认会计原则不尽相同但最后的损益数字却是一致的: 其中波克夏拥有Blue Chips Stamps 60%的股权,而后者又拥有 Wesco 财务公司 80% 的股权。


 
 
 
 
1981
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Percent
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Underwriting
 
100.0%
 
1,478
 
1,478
 
 
 
798
 

Net Investment Income
 
100.0%
 
38,823
 
38,823
 
 
 
32,401
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
100.0%
 
(2,669)
 
(2,669)
 
 
 
(1,493)
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
100.0%
 
1,763
 
1,763
 
 
 
759
 

See's Candies
 
59.6%
 
21,891
 
13,046
 
 
 
6,289
 

Buffalio Evening News
 
59.6%
 
(1,057)
 
(630)
 
 
 
(276)
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
59.6%
 
3,642
 
2,171
 
 
 
2,134
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
47.7%
 
4,495
 
2,145
 
 
 
1,590
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
47.7%
 
1,605
 
766
 
 
 
1,536
 

Presion Steel
 
47.7%
 
3,453
 
1,648
 
 
 
841
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
(14,656)
 
(12,649)
 
 
 
(6,671)
 

Other*1
 
 
 
1,895
 
1,344
 
 
 
1,513
 

 
 
 
 
60,663
 
47,236
 
 
 
39,421
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
 
 
37,801
 
33,150
 
 
 
23,183
 

Total Earnings-all entities
 
 
 
98,464
 
80,386
 
 
 
62,604
 

?*1 包含购并企业商誉的摊销(如See's Candies; Mutual; Buffalio Evening News等)
*2 Illinois National Bank 已于1980.12.31 从波克夏脱离出去


?Blue Chip 及Wesco 两家公司因为本身是公开发行公司以规定编有自己的年报,我建议大家仔细阅读。(1981)


?就像先前我们所提到的,不具控制权的股权投资其已分配的盈余已列示于保险事业的投资收益之中,但未分配盈余占本公司的重要性已不下于前面表列的帐面盈余,下表列示的是那些我们不具控制权的股权投资的持股:


Company Name
 
Type
 
Shares
 
Cost
 
 
 
Market
 
Unrealized Gain
 

Affiliated Publications, Inc.
 
(a)
 
451,650
 
3,297
 
 
 
14,114
 
10,817
 

Aluminum Company of America
 
(a)
 
703,634
 
19,359
 
 
 
18,031
 
(1,328)
 

Arcata Corporation(Inc. Common Equi)
 
(a)
 
420,441
 
14,076
 
 
 
15,136
 
1,060
 

Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company
 
(b)
 
475,217
 
12,942
 
 
 
14,362
 
1,420
 

GATX Corporation
 
(a)
 
441,522
 
17,147
 
 
 
13,466
 
(3,681)
 

General Foods, Inc
 
(b)
 
2,101,244
 
66,277
 
 
 
66,714
 
437
 

GEIGO Corporation
 
(a)
 
7,200,000
 
47,138
 
 
 
199,800
 
152,662
 

Handy & Harman
 
(a)
 
2,015,000
 
21,825
 
 
 
36,270
 
14,445
 

Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc
 
(a)
 
711,180
 
4,531
 
 
 
23,202
 
18,671
 

Media General
 
(a)
 
282,500
 
4,545
 
 
 
11,088
 
6,543
 

Ogilvy & Mather Int'l, Inc
 
(a)
 
391,400
 
3,709
 
 
 
12,329
 
8,620
 

Pinkerton, Inc.
 
(b)
 
370,088
 
12,144
 
 
 
19,675
 
7,531
 

R.J. Reynolds Industries
 
(b)
 
1,764,824
 
76,668
 
 
 
83,127
 
6,459
 

SAFECO Corporation
 
(b)
 
785,225
 
21,329
 
 
 
31,016
 
9,687
 

The Washington Post Company
 
(a)
 
1,868,600
 
10,628
 
 
 
58,160
 
47,532
 

All Other Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
16,131
 
 
 
22,739
 
6,608
 

Total Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
351,746
 
 
 
639,229
 
287,483
 

?(a) 代表全部股权由波克夏及其子公司所持有
(b) 代表由波克夏子公司Blue Chip与Wesco 所持有,依波克夏持股比例换算得来
由于我们具控制权与不具控制权的企业经营遍布各行各业,所以恕我无法在此赘述,但无论如何,集团的重点一定是摆在产险/意外险之上,所以有必要对其产业未来发展加以说明。

「预测」如同Sam Goldwyn 所说的是相当危险的,尤其是那些有关对未来的预测,(波克夏的股东在过去几年的年报中读到你们的董事长对纺织业未来的分析后,可能也会深有同感),但若预测1982年的保险业承销会很惨,那就不会有什么好怕的了,因为结果已经由目前同业的杀价行为加上保险契约的先天性质获得了印证。当许多汽车保险保单以六个月为期来定价并发售,而许多产物保险以三年为期,而意外保险同业一般流通的期间则略低于十二个月,当然价格在保险有效的期间内是固定的,因此今年销售的合约(业内的说法,称之为保费收入)大概会决定明年保费收入的一半,而另外一半则由明年签下的保险契约来决定,因此获利的情况自然而然会递延,也就是说若你在定价上犯了错误,那你所受的痛苦可能会持续一阵子。注意下表所列为每年保费收入成长率与其对当年与隔年度获利的影响,而结果正如同你所预期的一样,当保费收入以二位数成长,则当年与隔年的获利数字就会很好看,但若保费收入仅能以个位数成长,则表示承销结果就会变得很差。(1981)

下表反映一般同业所面临的情势,Combined Ratio 表示所有营运成本加上理赔损失占保费收入的比率,百分之一百以下表示有承保利益,反之则表示有损失:


 
 
Yearly Change in
 
Yearly Change in
 
Combined Ratio
 

 
 
Premiums Written
 
Premiums Earned
 
after Policy-holder Dividends
 

 
 
%
 
 
 
%
 
 
 
%
 

1972
 
 
 
10.2%
 
10.9%
 
 
 
96.2%
 

1973
 
 
 
8.0%
 
8.8%
 
 
 
99.2%
 

1974
 
 
 
6.2%
 
6.9%
 
 
 
105.4%
 

1975
 
 
 
11.0%
 
9.6%
 
 
 
107.9%
 

1976
 
 
 
21.9%
 
19.4%
 
 
 
102.4%
 

1977
 
 
 
19.8%
 
20.5%
 
 
 
97.2%
 

1978
 
 
 
12.8%
 
14.3%
 
 
 
97.5%
 

1979
 
 
 
10.3%
 
10.4%
 
 
 
100.6%
 

1980
 
 
 
6.0%
 
7.8%
 
 
 
103.1%
 

1981
 
 
 
3.6%
 
4.1%
 
 
 
105.7%
 

诚如Pogo 所说:「未来与决不会与过去相同」。现在的订价习惯已注定日后悲惨的结果,尤其若因近几年无重大灾难所和得的喘息机会结束时。保险承保的情况会因大家运气好(而非运气坏)而变差,近几年来飓风大多仅停留在海上,同时摩托车骑士较少在路上跑,但他们不会永远都那么守规矩。当然货币与社会(法院与陪审团对保险投保范围认定超越合约与判例的扩张)的双重通货膨胀是无法抵档的,财产的修补与人身的医疗等这些被视为保险公司的当然责任,所引发的成本将会无止尽的扩张。若没遇上什么倒霉事(如大灾难或驾驶行为增加等)同业保费收入平均至少要增加十个百分点才能使1982年的承销比率不会再恶化(大部份同业估计承担损失每年以十个百分点成长,当然大家都期望自己公司成长较少)。(1981)

去年年报我们曾经提到许多保险公司因投资不当使得其公司财务变得不健全,迫使他们放弃原有承保原则,不惜以低价承接保单以维持既有流动性。很明显的帐上持有不合理高估的债券的同业,为了现金周转而以明显不合理的低价大量卖出保单,他们害怕保单收入的减少更甚于承保所可能增加的损失。然而不幸的是所有的同业皆因此受波及,因为你的价格不可能与竞争同业差得太远,这种压力未曾稍减,并迫使愈来愈多的同业跟进,盲目追求量的成长而非质的增加,害怕失去的市场占有率永远无法回复。即使大家一致认同费率极不合理,我们认为没有一家保险业者,能够承受现金极度流出的情况下不接任何保单,而只要这种心态存在,则保单价格将持续面临调降压力。对于专家一再认定保险产业的循环具规则性且长期而言承销损益接近两平,我们则抱持不同的看法,我们相信承保面临钜额损失(虽然程度不一)将成为保险业界的常态,未来十年内最好的表现在以往仅能算得上是普通而已。虽然面临持续恶化的未来,波克夏的保险事业并无任何良方,但我们经营阶层却已尽力力争上游,虽然承保数量减少了,但承保损益相较于同业仍显优越。展望未来,波克夏将维持低保单的现状,我们的财务实力使我们能保持最大的弹性,这在同业间并不多见。而将来总有一天,当同业保单接到怕之时,波克夏财务实力将成为营运发展最有利的后盾。其中GEICO我们不具控制权的主要股权投资更是个中翘楚,它堪称企业理念的最佳实践典范(1981)

我们让使得所有股东皆能指定其个别捐赠单位的新计划受到广大回响,在932,206张有效股份中(即在本公司股份系由本人登记者),有95.6%回复,而在即使不包含本人股份的情况下,也有超过90%的成绩。此外有3%的股东主动写信来支持本计划,而股东参与的热烈与提供的意见,也是我们前所未见,这种自动自发的态度说明了本计划成功与否,也可看出波克夏股东的天性。很明显的,他们不但希望能拥有且能自由掌控其所欲捐赠金钱的去向,教授父权式的管理学院可能会惊讶的发现,没有一位股东表示希望由波克夏的经营阶层来帮他们作决定或是依董监事捐赠比例行事 (这是目前一般美国大企业普遍的作法) 除了由波克夏及其子公司经营阶层决定的捐献外,总计1,783,655美元的股东指定捐赠款共分配给675个慈善机关团体。 往后几年波克夏将会因这项捐款计划获得些许的税负抵减,而每年十月十日以前,我们将会通知股东每股可捐赠的金额,你有三个礼拜的时间可以作决定,为免丧失资格,股份须确实由你本人名义登记,对于去年这项计划我们惟一感到遗憾的是,有些股东虽然不是因为本身的错误,而无法参加,由于税务单位的解释令于十月初才下来,并规定股份若由代理人或经纪人名义登记者不适用,由于时间紧迫,再加上联络前述股东仍须透过其代理人,使得部份股东没能参加,在此我们强烈呼吁那些股票经纪人尽速通知其客户,以免股东的权利被剥夺,其中有家证券经纪商代表六十位股东(约占4%强股权)很明显地在接到邮件三个礼拜后,才将之转到客户的手上。讽刺的是,该公司并非所有部门皆如此懒散,转寄邮件的帐单在六天内就送到波克夏公司。我们之所以告诉大家这件事有两个理由(1)若你希望参加这项股东指定捐赠计划的话,请务必将你的股份在九月底以前改登记在自己的名下(2)就算你不想参加,最好还是至少将一股登记在自己的名下,如此才能确保你与其它股东一样在第一时间知道有关公司的重大消息。最后包含这项股东指定捐赠计划在内的许多很好的idea,都是由波克夏公司的副董事长兼Blue Chip的董事长Charlie Minger所构思,不管职称为何,Charlie 跟我皆以执行合伙人的心态管理所有事业,而各位股东就像是我们一般的合伙人一样。(1981)

一九八二年

今年的营业利益约为三千一百万美元,期初股东权益报酬率(持有股权投资以原始成本计)仅约9.8%,较去年1979年的15.2%下滑,亦远低于1978年近年度的新高19.4%,主要的原因包括:
(1)保险承销成绩大幅恶化。
(2)股权资本大幅扩张的同时,由我们直接控制的事业并未同步成长。
(3)我们持续增加对不具控制权股权投资的投入,但我们依比例可分得的盈余照会计原则却不能认列在帐面上。(1982)

几年前我曾经说过营业利益占股权资本的比率(再加上一些调整)是衡量企业单一年度经营绩效的最佳方法,虽然我们仍坚信这套标准仍适用于绝大部份的企业,但是我必须说明这套标准对波克夏的适用性却已大不如前,或许你会怀疑这样的说法,认为当数字好看时很少有人会将标准舍弃,但是将结果变得很糟糕时,经理人通常倾向将衡量标准而非自己给换掉。当成绩恶化时,自然就会有另一套标准跑出来解释原因,就像是射箭手先将箭射在空白的标靶上,然后再小心的将红心画在箭的周围一样,但基于前述原因(3)的重要性日益增加(详如后述),我们确信移动红心的举动是具有正当理由的。
    后附财务报表所反映的帐面盈余一般已将我们持股超过20%的股权投资依持股比例认列其损益,然而低于20%的股权投资却只能认列实际有收到的现金股利,至于未发放的盈余则完全不列入计算。(当然也有少数例外,譬如我们持有35%的GEICO保险公司便因为我们已将投票权委托出去给别人,故在1982年仅能以成本法认列实际收到的现金股利350万美元,至于剩下的2,300万未分配的部份则完全不列入计算;而假设GEICO当年度赚的比原本的少但却多发100万,则波克夏的帐面反而变得更好看,很明显的会计原则有时会扭区经济现实)。所以我们比较认同将所有未分配盈余皆计入而不管持股比例的经济盈余概念,我们认为一家公司其所赚得的盈余对股东的价值在于公司是否将其在运用于有效的用途之上,而非分配与否或是持股比例,如果你拥有波克夏万分之一的股权,在过去十几年来你一定拥有并实际感受到公司盈余的成长,不管你采用的是何种会计原则。同样的,你也可能100%拥有一家资本密集的公司,即使每年皆能完全认列公司的损益,却毫无得到实质经济利益成长的喜悦。这不是在批评会计原则,而我们也没有能力再建立一套更好的制度,只是要告诉所有的经营阶层与投资大众,会计数字只是企业评价的起点而非终点。在大部份的公司,20%的股权可能不算重大,而前面我们所提到的经济与帐面利益的差异并不大,但我们的情况却非如此,相反地,他们的重要性与成长性,反而使得我们原来帐列的盈余数字显得微不足到。(1982)

在1981年的年报,我们曾预测我们四个主要不具控制权的股权投资,依持股比例可分得的未分配盈余高达三千五百万,而今年在其中三个持股比例未变(包括GEICO、General Foods与Washington Post),另一家R.J.Reynolds大幅增加的情况下,可分得的未分配盈余超过四千万美金,这个数字完全未显现在帐上,已超过波克夏帐列盈余数(其中包含前述四家公司所发放的一千四百万现金股利) ,这还不包括其它未计入的不具控制权的股权投资部份。我们说明这些数字只是要强调它们的重要性,但基于税务考量却不一定要他们完全显现出来,而同时这些盈余将透过其本身股价不定期且不规则的反映出来,而这种特性却提供那些价值型的投资人投资机会,他们可以从各式各样的美国企业中挑选价廉物美的公司部份股权,并从一群投资行为有如惊慌失措的旅鼠手中捡到便宜货。在这个巨大的拍卖市场中,我们的工作就是去挑选那些能将所赚的钱再利用并产生大于原本的经济效益的公司,尽管曾经犯了不少错误,目前为止仍算达成目标,有时某些公司所保留的盈余并未增加其经济效益,但有时却高达二、三倍,到目前为止,表现好的多过表现差的,若我们能继续保持下去,不管对帐面盈余有任何影响,将可使波克夏经济盈余极大化。(1982)

虽然我们对于买进部份股权的方式感到满意,但真正会令我们雀跃的却是能以合理的价格100%地买下一家优良企业,我们偶尔会缔造如此佳绩(也希望能够再次做到),这是一件相当困难的工作,比买进部份股权要困难得多。当我们在观察1982年的几件大额购并案,我们的反应并不是忌妒,反而庆幸我们并非其中一员。因为在这些购并案中,管理当局的冲动战胜其理智,追逐的刺激过程使得追求者变得盲目,Pascal的观察非常恰当:「它使我想到所有的不幸皆归究于大家无法安静的待在一个房间内」(你们的董事长去年也曾数度离开那个房间,且差点成为那场闹剧的主角),回想起来,去年我们最大的成就是试图大幅购买那些我们先前已投入许多的公司的股权但由于某些无法控制的原因却无法执行,倘若真的成功了,这宗交易必定会耗尽我们所有的时间与精神,但却不一定会获得回报。若我们将去年的报告作成图表介绍本公司的发展,你将会发现有两页空白的跨页插图用来描述这宗告吹的交易。(1982)

我们投资部份股权的作法惟有当我们可以以合理的价格买到吸引人的企业才行得通,同时也需要温和的股票市场作配合,而市场就像老天爷一样,帮助那些自己帮助自己的人,但与老天爷不一样的地方是祂不会原谅那些不知道自己在做什么的人。对投资人来说,买进的价格太高将抵销这家绩优企业未来十年亮丽的发展所带来的效应。所以当股票市场涨到一定的程度,将使我们有效地运用资金买进部份股权的能力大打折扣或甚至完全消失。这种情况会定期发生,就在十年前当股市到达狂热的高档时(由于高股东权益报酬股被机构投资人捧上天),波克夏的保险子公司(不包括在Blue Chip Stamps部份)仅仅持有一千八百万市值的股票(相较于现在的80%),仅占保险公司投资总额的15% ,在1972年的当时有跟现在一样多的好公司,但他们当时的股价实在有点离谱。虽然股价高涨对公司短期的表现有所助益,但就长期而言却反而会影响企业的前景,而目前我们已观察到一些蛛丝马迹再度出现。(1982)

1982年波克夏净值的成长,(保险子公司持有的股票以市价计,扣除未实现资本利得的潜在税负)大约是二亿零八百万美金,相较于期初净值五亿一千九百万,约有40%的成长。在现今经营阶层接掌公司的十八年里,帐面价值由原先的每股19.46美元成长到现在的每股737.43美元,约当22.0%年复合成长率,可以确定的这个比率在未来将减少。波克夏的经济目标是希望获得高于一般美国企业的长期报酬率,我们愿意以合理的价格购买全部或部份具竞争力的企业,有助于我们达成上述目标,再一次的我们不具控制权的股权投资其市值成长高于其实质经济利益的成长,举例来说,在二亿零八百万当中有七千九百万是由于GEICO市值的成长,这家公司持续表现优异,我们一再对该公司经营理念的实践与经营阶层的管理能力感到印象深刻(虽然不是名校出身,但让Jack试看看的结果,证实我们的眼光并成为我们企业的信念)。然而GEICO 在市值的成长却远超过本身内含价值的成长,虽然后者一样令人印象深刻,而当投资大众逐渐认清现实状况时,我们相信市值将会反映其真正价值,而每年的差异变化不会永远都对我们有利,就算我们的部份公司每年都表现很好,也不一定保证在股市的表现一定很好,而那时波克夏的净值便会大幅缩减,但我们不会感到沮丧,如果这家公司一直都是那么吸引人而我们手头上又刚好有现金,我们便会再逢低增加持股。(1982)

下表显示波克夏依照各个公司持股比例来列示帐面盈余的主要来源,而各个公司资本利得损失并不包含在内而是汇总于下表最后「已实现出售证券利得」一栏,虽然本表列示的方式与一般公认会计原则不尽相同但最后的损益数字却是一致的: 其中波克夏拥有Blue Chips Stamps 60%的股权,而后者又拥有 Wesco 财务公司 80% 的股权。


 
 
1982
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Underwriting
 
(21,558)
 
(21,558)
 
 
 
(11,345)
 

Net Investment Income
 
41,620
 
41,620
 
 
 
35,270
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
(1,545)
 
(1,545)
 
 
 
(862)
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
914
 
914
 
 
 
446
 

See's Candies
 
23,884
 
14,235
 
 
 
6,914
 

Buffalio Evening News
 
(1,215)
 
(724)
 
 
 
(226)
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
4,182
 
2,492
 
 
 
2,472
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
6,156
 
2,937
 
 
 
2,210
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
(6)
 
(2)
 
 
 
1,524
 

Presion Steel
 
1,035
 
493
 
 
 
265
 

Interest on Debt
 
(14,996)
 
(12,977)
 
 
 
(6,951)
 

Other*1
 
2,631
 
1,857
 
 
 
1,780
 

 
 
41,102
 
27,742
 
 
 
31,497
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
36,651
 
21,875
 
 
 
14,877
 

Total Earnings-all entities
 
77,753
 
49,617
 
 
 
46,374
 

?**1 包含购并企业商誉的摊销(如See's Candies; Mutual; Buffalio Evening News等)

本报告并附有Blue Chip 及Wesco 两家公司主要经营阶层对其1982 年公司经营作的一番叙述,其中我相信你会发现有关Blue Chip在Buffalo Evening News 的情况特别有意思,目前全美大约有十四个城市的日报业者其每周发行量超过Buffalo ,但真正的关键却在于星期天发行量的成长,六年前也就是在周日版尚未推出之前,原本在Buffalo 发行星期天报纸的 Courier-Express 约有27万份的发行量,而如今即使该地区家庭户数未见成长单单Buffalo News在周日便有36万份,约为35%的成长,就我们所知这是在全美其它地区所未见的,一切都要归功该报的管理阶层为我们所做的努力。(1982)

如同我们先前曾说明过的,不具控制权的股权投资未分配的盈余其重要性早以不下于前表所列公司帐面营业净利。在不具控制权的股权投资中已分配的盈余当然已反映在公司净投资收益(Net Investment Income)项下,而下表所列系我们在不具控制权的股权投资依持股比例所应有之权益:


Company Name
 
Shares
 
Cost
 
 
 
Market
 
Unrealized
 

Affiliated Publications, Inc.
 
460,560
 
3,516
 
 
 
16,929
 
13,413
 

Crum & Forster
 
908,800
 
47,144
 
 
 
48,962
 
1,818
 

General Foods, Inc
 
2,101,244
 
66,277
 
 
 
83,680
 
17,403
 

GEIGO Corporation
 
7,200,000
 
47,138
 
 
 
309,600
 
262,462
 

Handy & Harman
 
2,379,200
 
27,318
 
 
 
46,692
 
19,374
 

Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc
 
711,180
 
4,531
 
 
 
34,314
 
29,783
 

Media General
 
282,500
 
4,545
 
 
 
12,289
 
7,744
 

Ogilvy & Mather Int'l, Inc
 
391,400
 
3,709
 
 
 
17,319
 
13,610
 

R.J. Reynolds Industries
 
3,107,675
 
142,343
 
 
 
158,715
 
16,372
 

Time, Inc
 
1,531,391
 
45,273
 
 
 
79,824
 
34,551
 

The Washington Post Company
 
1,868,600
 
10,628
 
 
 
103,240
 
92,612
 

All Other Common Stock
 
 
 
21,611
 
 
 
34,058
 
12,447
 

Total Common Stock
 
 
 
424,033
 
 
 
945,622
 
521,589
 

?(a) 代表全部股权由波克夏及其子公司所持有
(b) 代表由波克夏子公司Blue Chip与Wesco 所持有,依波克夏持股比例换算得来
(c) 代表暂时持有作为现金的替代品

为免你未注意到,本表有个投资经验可与大家分享,念旧(Nostalgia) 在我们投资选股时必须特别加以重视,我们投资组合中具有最大未实现利益的两家公司GEIGO与Washington Post,事实上本人早在13岁与20岁时便与它们结缘,但磋跎了二十几年,迟至1970年代我们才正式成为该公司的股东,但结果证明所谓:「迟到总比未到好。」(1982)

由于我们具控制权与不具控制权的股权投资经营的行业实在是相当广泛,若我一一详细介绍将会使得报告变得冗长,然而这其中不管是现在或是将来最主要的事业经营将会是摆在产险与意外险领域之上,因此我们有必要对保险产业现状予以详加说明:
下表显示的是去年我们曾引用过,经过更新后的产业统计数字,其所传达的讯息相当明显,我们将不会对1983年的承保结果感到吃惊,数据正说明了目前整个所面临到的状况,Combined Ratio系表示经营成本加上理赔损失除以保费收入的比率,若比率小于100%则表示有承保利益,反之则有承保损失,就如同去年我们所说的一样,若承销保费年增率低于10%,你就会发现隔年的承保结果恶化,即使像通膨率相对较低的今日也是如此,随着保单日益成长,医疗费用上涨的速度远高于一般物价,加上保险责任日益扩大的影响,承保损失将很难压低到10%以下,大家必须有所认知1982年的Combined Ratio 109.5已是相当乐观的估计,在以前年代保险公司几乎可依自身喜好来调整年度获利,只要(1)承销长期保单(Long-tail)因为理赔成本多采用估计(2)以前年度提存有适当准备或(3)业务成长快速。
有迹象显示有几家大型保险公司倾向以模糊的会计与挪动准备的方式来掩饰其本业不佳的情况。保险业,跟其它行业一样,不良的经营阶层对不良的营运通常最直接的反应就是不良的帐务,俗语说:「你很难让一个空沙包站得直挺挺的」。当然大部份的经营阶层都尽力正正当当的游戏规则玩,但即使是正直的管理当局在面对获利不佳的情况时,下意识多多少少也不会愿意完全承认走下坡的窘境,产业统计资料指出在1982年对于提列损失准备方面有恶化迹象,而实际的Combined Ratio 可能会比表列数更差一点。
   一般认为在1983或1984 年会到谷底,然后产业循环会如同过去经验一般缓步稳定地向上,但由于一项明显的改变(这种改变已许多年未见,而如今却重现)使我们抱持不同的看法。


 
 
Yearly Change in
 
Yearly Change in
 
Combined Ratio
 

 
 
Premiums Written
 
Premiums Earned
 
after Policy-holder Dividends
 

 
 
%
 
 
 
%
 
 
 
%
 

1972
 
 
 
10.2%
 
10.9%
 
 
 
96.2%
 

1973
 
 
 
8.0%
 
8.8%
 
 
 
99.2%
 

1974
 
 
 
6.2%
 
6.9%
 
 
 
105.4%
 

1975
 
 
 
11.0%
 
9.6%
 
 
 
107.9%
 

1976
 
 
 
21.9%
 
19.4%
 
 
 
102.4%
 

1977
 
 
 
19.8%
 
20.5%
 
 
 
97.2%
 

1978
 
 
 
12.8%
 
14.3%
 
 
 
97.5%
 

1979
 
 
 
10.3%
 
10.4%
 
 
 
100.6%
 

1980
 
 
 
6.0%
 
7.8%
 
 
 
103.1%
 

1981
 
(Rev.)
 
3.9%
 
4.1%
 
 
 
106.0%
 

1982
 
(Est.)
 
5.1%
 
4.6%
 
 
 
109.5%
 

对此我们必须探究几项影响企业获利的重要因素才能了解这种改变,一般来说若企业处在产业面临供给过剩且为产品一般商品化的情形(在整体表现、外观、售后服务等都无差异化)时,便极有可能发生获利警讯,当然若价格或成本在某些情况下(例如透过政府立法干预、非法勾结或国际性联合垄断如OPEC)能获得控制或可稍微免除自由市场竞争。否则若客户不在乎其所采用的产品或通路服务由谁提供,成本与价格系由完全竞争来决定,如此产业铁定会面临悲惨的下场,这也是为什么所有的厂商皆努力强调并建立本身产品或服务的差异性,这种作法在糖果有用(消费者会指明品牌)而砂糖却没有用(难道你听过有人会说:「我的咖啡要加奶精和某某牌的砂糖」) ,在许多产业就是无法作到差异化,有些生产者能因具成本优势而表现杰出,然在定义上这种情况极少或甚至不存在,所以对大部份销售已完全商品化的公司来说,不可避免的结局便是,持续的产能过剩无法控制价格滑落导致获利不佳,当然产能过剩会因产能缩减或需求增加而自我修正,而不幸的是这种修正的过程却是缓慢而痛苦的,当产业好不容易面临反弹时,却又是一窝蜂全面扩张的开始,不到几年又必须面对先前的窘况。而最后决定产业长期获利情况的是供给吃紧与供给过剩年度的比率,通常这种比率很小,(以我们在纺织业的经验来说,供给吃紧的情况要追溯到许多年以前,且大约仅维持不到一个早上的时间)。在某一些产业,供给吃紧的情况却可以维持上好一段期间,有时实际需求的成长甚至超过当初所预期,而要增加产能因涉及复杂的规划与建厂而须有相当的前置期。
    回归正题谈到保险业,供给量能马上提高只要业者增加点资本(有些时候由于州政府立法保障保户免于保险公司倒闭风险,甚至可不需要增加资本),在绝大多数的情况下,(除了发生股市大崩盘或自然界的大天灾)保险业皆处于过度竞争的环境下经营,通常来说尽管勇于尝试多变化,业者所销售的保单多属于无差异化的一般商品(许多保户包含大公司的经理人在内,甚至不知道自己所投保的是那一家保险公司),所以保险业在教科书当中一般被归类为面临供给过剩且产品一般商品化死胡同的艰困行业。
    那么为什么保险业即使在面临这种情况下,数十年来仍能有所获利?(在1950年到1970年间产业平均的Combined Ratio为99.0,使得公司获利除投资收益外,还外加1%的承销利益,答案在于传统的规范与行销方式,这个世纪以来整个产业系依照业者所掌控的近乎法定管制价格机制在运作,虽然竞价行为确实存在,但在大型保险业间却不普遍,主要的竞争系在争取经纪人方面,且多用各种与价格无关的方式去争取。而大型业者的费率主要系透过产业公会与州政府管制当局协调(或依照公司所建议)来订定,讨价还价是难免的,但那是业者与政府间,而不是业者与客户间的行为。当争论结束,公司甲的价格可能与公司乙的完全一致,而法律也禁止业者或经纪人再杀价竞争。业者与州政府协议订定的价格保障业者的获利而当资料显示现有价格不敷成本时,政府还会与业者协调共同努力改善损失的状况,故产业大部份定价的举动皆能确保公司有利可图,最重要的是不同于一般商业社会运作的习惯,保险公司即使在超额供给的情况下,仍能合法地调整价格以确保公司的获利。但好景不常,虽然旧有的制度仍在但组织外的资金入续投入市场,迫使所有的参与者,不论新旧皆被迫响应,新进者利用各种不同的行销管道且毫不犹豫地使用价格作为竞争的工具,而确实他们也善用这项武器,在过程中消费者了解到保险不再是不二价的行业,而关于这点他们永远记得。产业未来的获利性取决于现今而非过去竞争的特性,但许多经理人很难体认到这一点,不是只有将军才会战到最后一兵一卒,大部份的企业与投资分析都是后知后觉,但我们却看得很透澈,惟有一种情况才能改善保险业承保获利的状况,这和铝、铜或玉米生产业者相同,就是缩小供给与需求之间的差距,而不幸的是不像铝、铜,保单的需求不会因市场紧峭而一下子就大幅增加,所以相对的,须从紧缩供给面来下手,而所谓的供给实际上是偏向心理面而非实质面的,不须要关闭厂房或公司,只要业者克制一下签下保单的冲动即可。而这种抑制绝不会是因为获利不佳,因为不赚钱虽然会使业者犹豫再三但却不愿冒着丧失市场占有率与业界地位而放弃大笔的生意。反而是需要自然的或金融上的大风暴才会使业者大幅缩手,而这种情况或许明天就会发生,也或许要等上好几年,到时即使把投资收益列入考量,保险业也很难有获利的情况,当供给真正的紧缩时,大笔的业务将会捧上门给幸存的大型业者,他们有能力也有通路能够吃下所有生意,而我们的保险子公司已准备好这一天的到来。
    在1982年我们的保险部门承销成绩恶化的比同业还严重,从获利优于同业滑落成同业平均之下,主要的变动在于National  Indemnity传统的承保范围,我们以往获利颇佳的部份,价格下跌到保险公司铁定赔钱的惨况,而展望明年,我们预期表现将与同业水准相当,不过所谓的水准将会很惨。我们两位明星,Cypress的Milt Thornton 与Kansas的Floyd Taylor 表现持续看好,维持一惯的积极态度并建立在节省成本与客户至上的企业文化上,这明白显现在他们的得分记录上,在1982年母公司负责管理保险子公司的责任交给Mike Goldberg,自从Mike从我手中接棒后,不论在计划、招募与监控上皆也明显进步。(1982)

GEICO持续以追求效率与客户服务的热诚所管理,而这点也保证公司非凡的成功,Jack Byrne与 Bill Snyder成就人类最微妙的目标-让事情单纯化并牢记你所欲达成的目标,加上业界最优秀的投资经理人Lou Simpson,我们很满意这种最佳组合,GEICO是前面我们所提及过度供给的大众化商品高获利特殊情况的最佳典范,它是一家具有既深且广的成本优势的公司,我们在该公司35%的权益代表约二亿五千万的保费量,远大于我们直接取得的数量。(1982)

波克夏与Blue Chip目前正考虑在1983年正式合并,若真的实现,将会以一致的评价模式进行股权的交换,波克夏上一次大量发行新股是在1978年购并Diversified Retailing时。我们公司发行新股系遵循一项原则,那就是我们不轻易发行新股,除非我们所换得的内含企业价值与我们所付出的一样多,这种原则看似理所当然,你会问那有人会笨到以一块钱去交换五毛钱的呢?但不幸的是,有许多企业的经理人恰恰愿意如此作。他们在购并企业的第一选择是用现金或举债,但通常CEO的欲望超过现金与融资额度所能负担(我个人也是如此),尤其是他个人的持股市价远低于内含企业价值时更是如此,但事实仅维持一下子,然后就像Yogi Berra所说的:「光看你就能观察到许多东西」对股东而言,届时你就会发现公司经营阶层在乎的到底是企业版图的扩张或是股东权益的维护了。之所以需要在两者之间作选择的理由很简单,公司在股票市场上的价格通常低于其内含企业价值,但当股东会愿意将整间公司以协议的方式出售,必定想要且通常会取得相当于企业内含价值的回报,若收到的是现金,那么计算卖方取得的报酬是再容易不过了,若以买方的股票作交换,计算卖方取得的报酬还算简单,只要计算所取得的股票之市值即可,同时只要买方所用以交换的股票其市价接近内含企业价值便无太大问题,问题是假设若其股票市价仅及内含企业价值的一半,这时买方将会面临用贱卖自家股票的不愉快场面。
   讽刺的是,假设当买方变成卖方时,他反而能透过谈判换取相当于本身内含企业价值的代价,但当买方仅卖出公司部份股权以购并卖方,它将无法以高于市场给它的价格出售之。最后不论如何,往前冲的买方结果是以本身低估的股票换取价值合理的资产,等于是以一块钱价值的股票换到仅值五毛钱的东西,在这种情况下,以合理的价格买下不错的公司将会变成很不划算的买卖,就像是把金或银以锡的价格换到金子一样。当然若购并者对于规模的渴望配合上积极的行动自然能够找到理由解释这种摧毁公司价值的发行新股行动,亲切的投资银行家会再三保证其动作的合理性(不要问理发师你是有应该理头发),通常公司经营阶层最常采用的理由有下列几项:
(a)我们现在要买下的这家公司未来潜力无穷,(假定他们要换走的原有公司股份可能也是如此,而未来的远景以企业评价的角度而言是诲暗不明的,若以二倍的东西换取一倍的东西,即使未来两者的企业价值皆倍增则此种差异将仍然存在)。
(b)我们必须成长(有人或许会问:「所谓的我们是指谁?」对现有的股东而言,事实是现有的企业价值将因发行新股而遭到稀释,假若明天波克夏要发行新股以购并别人,波克夏或许将拥有原有企业加上新购并的公司,但各位股东在那些无可取代的企业,诸如See’s Candy、National Indenmity等公司的权益将马上减少。就像你家里原有120亩的农场,结果你和拥有60亩农地的邻居合并经营而权益各半,最后虽然你实际管理的面积增加为180亩,但你实际可分得的权益将永远减少25%,那些想要牺牲老板权益以扩张个人版图的经营阶层最好考虑到政府机关做事)
(c)我们的股票受到低估,而在此项交易我们已尽量避免动用公司股份,但我们仍须给予卖方51%的股票与49%的现金,使得他们得以免税(这种论点无异承认买方应尽量少发行新股,我们认同。但若用100%的股票会损及原有股东权益,那么51%的股票也一样,卖方的期望并不是决定买方最佳利益的考量因素,若卖方坚持被购并的条件包含换掉公司CEO,那结果不知会如何?
有三种方法可以避免原有股东的股份价值遭到侵蚀,第一种是以合理的价格对合理的价格进行购并(就像是波克夏与Blue Chip的合并案一样,试着用对双方都公平的方式进行,大家都收到与其付出一致的企业内含价值,Kraft与Nabisco的合并案也是如此,但他们是少数例外,不是因为购并者要回避这类交易,而是实际执行有困难)。
第二种方法发生在公司股票市价高于其实际企业内含价值,在这种情况下发行股票反而增进原有股东权益,在1965-69年间许多购并案属于这类,结果与1970年后的购并案完全相反,被购并的公司股东收到膨胀不实的股份(通常藉由可疑的会计与哄托的手法)成为该项交易的真正输家。而近年来在大型的公司变得相当少见,有些例外主要是那些具有美丽远景的公司使得市场暂时以高于其企业内含价值的价格予以评价。
    第三种方法是购并者照样进行交易,但然后接着从市场买回与因购并所发行的股份数量相同的股票,如此一来,原本以股换股的交易会转变为以现金换股的交易,买回股份本身是一种修补损害的动作,正常的读者应该能正确的猜到我们宁愿以买回自家股份的方式直接增进原有股东权益,而不只是修补原先的损害,得分的达阵会比弥补失误更令人雀跃,但当失误真得发生了,弥补是很重要的,我们衷心建议弥补错误的买回自家股份动作能将一项不好的以股换股交易变为公平的以现金换股交易。
    购并所用的语言通常会让事情搞混且鼓励经理人作出不合理的举动,例如股权稀释通常须经过仔细试算对帐面价值与每股获利能力的影响,而后者尤其受到重视,若计算结果对购并者为负面(即遭到稀释),则马上有人会提出合理解释说明在未来一定能够改善(实际交易不一定成功,但计划绝对不会有问题,若老板很明显的对于一项购并案保持高度兴趣,下面的部属与顾问一定能量身订作一套计划来证明交易价格的合理性),更别提若是试算结果为正面(即反稀释)一定不会有人再有任何意见。对于股权稀释与否的关心实在是有点过度,现在的每股盈余(甚至是未来几年的每股盈余)是企业评价的重要变量,但却不是绝对惟一的。有许多的合并案,即使未遭稀释,购并者本身的权益却马上遭到损害,而有些案子虽然现在或未来几年的每股盈余遭到稀释,但原有股东的权益却大大提高,真正重要的是一件购并案其企业内含价值是否有遭到稀释(而这需要考量许多项变量),我们坚信从这个角度去判断是绝对必要的(事实上也很难做到) 。
    第二个问题牵涉到交换的比例,若甲公司宣布要发行股票购并乙公司,通常大家都会把它解读成甲要取得乙或乙要卖给甲,但真正对这件事看得透澈的人却会直接但贴切的形容为甲卖掉部份股份以取得乙或乙股东得到部份甲的股份以换取乙全部的财产。在交易中,你给对方的跟对方给你的东西一样重要,即使要经过好一阵子才能知道你所给的是什么。后续不论是出售普通股或发行可转债以取得交易所需资金或恢复财报实力,皆必须仔细计算以评估原本这项购并案的影响,(若企业怀胎是企业结合的必然结果,那么在享乐之前便须面对现实) 。
    管理阶层必须仔细想清楚,他们会不会在像卖部份股权一样的情况下,把100%股权卖掉,若卖掉全部股权的作法不恰当,那么在同一基础下卖掉部份股权就合理吗?管理当局的小错误会慢慢累积成为一项大错误而非大胜利(拉斯维加斯就是建立在人们从事认为无伤大雅的资本交易所造成的财富移转之上) 。
    取舍之间的因素考量在投资公司间可以很容易的计算,假设投资公司甲其市价仅为其真正价值的一半,并打算购并投资公司乙,又假设投资公司甲决定发行相当市值的股份以换取投资公司乙全部的资产,在这种情况下等于是投资公司甲以二块钱的内含价值换取一块钱的内含价值,而马上会接到甲公司股东与证管会的异议,强调投资公司合并的公平性,所以这样的交易一定不被允许。然而对制造、服务、金融等公司而言,价值却不像投资公司那么容易计算,但我们也曾见过有些购并案像前面所提案例一样明显伤害原有股东的权益,而如果公司经营阶层能注重公平性,愿意用同样的标准来评估两家企业的话,这样的伤害便绝对不会发生。
    最后我们对购并者原有股东因发行稀释股份的祸不单行表示点意见,在这种情况下,第一项打击是购并案本身所造成对内含价值的损害,第二项打击是在购并案后对企业评价的向下修正,因为包括现有与未来可能的股东会对管理当局这种损害股东权益的行为感到失望,而宁愿把钱交给真正重视股东权益的人手上,如此一来公司的本益比将向下修正,不管管理当局如何再三强调这种行为只是偶发性,就像是客人在餐厅的汤内发现一只蟑螂,生意马上受到影响,不管你换了厨师也一样,同理可证最高的本/内含价值比将会给那些不轻易发行股份稀释原有股东权益的经营阶层。
    在波克夏或是其它由我们作决策的公司,包括Blue Chip及Wesco,惟有当我们所换得的企业价值跟我们所付出的一样多时,才考虑发行新股,我们绝不会将企业发展或企业规模与股东权益划上等号。(1982)

由于会有许多不同的读者看到这份报告,其中可能会有人对我们的购并计划有所帮助,我们对具以下条件的公司有兴趣:
(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有五百万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)
我们不会进行敌意购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,但若符合先前所提状况也会考虑发行股份。(1982)

今年的股东指定捐赠计划再度得到热烈回响,虽然每股仅分配1美元较去年的2美元少,仍有95.8%的有效票参与,若与Blue Chip的合并案成真,附代的好处是合并报税将使我们可捐赠的总额大幅增加,每位股东可分配的金额未来也会跟着增加。若你也想参加的话,我们强烈建议你赶快把股份从经纪人那儿改登记于自己的名下。(1982)

在一时冲动之下,我们将企业总部的面积增加252平方呎(约17%),恰巧碰上重新签订五年的租约,和我一同工作的五个人-Joan Atherton、Mike Goldberg、Gladys Kaiser、Verne McKenzie与Bill Scott等其生产力远超过企业集团,精简的组织使我们有更多的时间管理旗下公司而非互相管理。我的合伙人Charlie Munger将继续留在洛杉矶不管与Blue Chip的合并成功与否,Charlie 跟我在企业决策上是可以互相替代的,距离一点也不会阻碍我们,我们总是发现一通电话会比半天冗长的会议更有效率。(1982)

今年我们有两位经营明星退休,National Indemnity 65岁的Phil Liesche和Associated Retail 79岁的Ben Rosner,这两个人都让身为波克夏股东的你更为富有,National Indemnity是支持波克夏成长的重要力量。Phil和他的继任者Ringwalt是该公司成功主要的推动者,而Ben Rosner 在1967年将Associated Retail以现金卖给Diversified Retailing后,原本仅承诺继续待到当年度年底,结果在往后的十五年仍持续表现杰出。他们两人皆为波克夏尽心尽力管理公司就好象是他们100%拥有这家公司一样,不须订定额外的规则来强迫他们,这种态度早在波克夏加入前便已深植在他们的人格特质中,他们好的个性成就我们更多的财富,如果我们能持续吸引到像Ben 和Phil这样的人,你将可不必担心波克夏的未来。 (1982)

一九八三年

去年登记为波克夏的股东人数由1,900人增加到2,900人,主要是由于我们与Blue Chip的合并案,但也有一部份是因为自然增加的速度,就像几年前我们一举成长突破1,000大关一样。有了这么多新股东,有必要将有关经营者与所有者间关系方面的主要企业原则加以汇整说明:
    尽管我们的组织登记为公司,但我们是以合伙的心态来经营(Although our form is corporate, our attitude is partnership.) 查理孟格跟我视波克夏的股东为合伙人,而我们两个人则为执行合伙人(而也由于我们持有股份比例的关系,也算是具控制权的合伙人)我们并不把公司视为企业资产的最终拥有人,实际上公司只要股东拥有资产的一个媒介而已。
对应前述所有权人导向,我们所有的董事都是波克夏的大股东,五个董事中的四个,其家族财产有超过一半是波克夏持股,简言之,我们自给自足(We eat our own cooking) 。
    我们长远的经济目标(附带后面所述的几个标准)是将每年平均每股内含价值的成长率极大化,我们不以波克夏规模来作为衡量公司的重要性或表现,由于资本大幅提高,我们确定每股价值的年增率一定会下滑,但至少不能低于一般美国大企业平均数。
我们最希望能透过直接拥有会产生现金且具有稳定的高资本报酬率的各类公司来达到上述目的,否则退而求其次,是由我们的保险子公司在公开市场买进类似公司的部份股权,购并对象的价格与机会,保险公司资金的需求会决定年度资金的配置。
由于这种取得企业所有权的双向手法,及传统会计原则的限制,合并报告盈余无法完全反映公司的实际经济状况,查理跟我同时身为公司股东与经营者,实际上并不太理会这些数字,然而我们依旧会向大家报告公司每个主要经营行业的获利状况,那些我们认为重要的,这些数字再加上我们会提供个别企业的其它信息将有助于你对它们下判断。(1983)

会计数字并不会影响我们经营或资金配置的决策,当购并成本接近时,我们宁愿去买依会计原则不列示在帐面的两块钱盈余,而非那种完全列示在帐面的一块钱盈余,这也是我们当要购买整家企业(盈余可完全列示)的价格要比购买部份股权(盈余不可列示)贵上一倍而常常所须面临的选择一样类似,但就长期而言,我们却可期望这些不可列示的盈余透过长期资本利得反映在公司帐面之上。
    我们很少大幅举债,而当我们真得如此做时,我们倾向把它们定在长期固定利率的基础之上,我们宁愿避免资产负债表过度融资而放弃许多吸引人的投资机会,虽然如此保守的作法有时使我们的绩效打了点折扣,但考量到对保户、存款人、借款人与全体股东将大部份财产托付给我们的责任时,这也是惟一令我们感到安心的作法。

管理当局的心愿不会靠股东的花费来实现,我们不会因为要任意的多角化而随便买下整家公司却忽略了股东长期的经济利益,我们会把你的钱当作就好象在用自己的钱一般地谨慎,就宛如你直接透过股票市场分散买进股票具备一样的价值。

我们认为应该定期检验结果,我们测试的标准是衡量保留下来的每一块钱是否能发挥至少一块钱的市场价值,而到目前为止,尚能达到标准,我们会以每五年一个循环,而随着净值的成长,这项目标将愈来愈难达成。

惟有在当收到跟付出一样多的经济价值时,我们才有考虑发行库藏股,这项原则适用于各种情况,不管是购并或公开市场收购,另外债务转股权、选择权与转换权都一样,我们绝不会违背股东权益的情况下,把公司的一部份卖掉(这正是发行新股背后代表的意义) 。

你必须完全明了有一种查理跟我可能会损及绩效表现的态度,那就是:不论价格高低,我们绝不会出售波克夏所拥有的好公司,只要我们预期它们能够产生一些现金流入,而我们也对该公司的经营阶层、劳资关系感到安心。我们希望不要重复犯下资金配置错误导致我们投入次级的产业,同时也对于那些只要投入大量资本支出便能改善获利状况的建议(预测通常很亮丽,支持的人也很诚恳,但到最后,额外的重大投资得到的结果就好象是在流沙上挣扎一般),尽管如此,打牌似的管理行为(每轮都把最好的牌丢出)并非我们行事风格,我们宁可整体的结果逊色一点也不愿意花大把银子处理它。

我们会以绝对真诚的态度对待大家,尤其是有关评估企业价值的各种利与弊方面。我们的原则是假设今天的位置对调时,我们希望你应该告知我们的所有事实,这是我们应该给你的,此外,由于波克夏是一家具有媒体事业的集团,我们责无旁贷地须以同样客观正确的标准要求自己,就像是我们要求新闻同仁一般,我们深信坦白对身为经营者的我们来说是有益的,因为一个在对外欺骗别人的人最后一定会把自己也给骗了。
    但坦白的原则也有限度,那就是我们仅在法令规定范围内讨论我们在股票上的进出,就像一件好产品或商业购并案一样,好的投资机会不多所以珍贵,且很容易被盗用,所以通常我们不会详细说明投资细节,这甚至包括已经出售的部份(因为我们很有可能会在买回来)与传言我们要买进的,若我们否认相关报导但说:「不予置评」,有时反而会被认为已经证实。(1983)

?终于结束教条式的说明,接下来进行到1983年的重点,购并Nebraska Furniture主要股权以及我们与Rose Blumkin一家的交往过程
去年在提到许多经理人如何前扑后继追求一些愚蠢的购并案时,我们引用Pascal的话:「它使我想到所有的不幸皆归究于大家无法安静的待在一个房间内」,但今年我要说:「Pascal也会为了Blumkin太太离开那个房间」大约67年前,当Blumkin太太23岁时,靠她一张嘴说服边界警卫逃离俄国来到美国,从未接受过正式教育(连小学也没有),也不懂英文,许多年后靠着她的女儿每晚教她复习白天在学校所学的每一个字,她学会了英文,而后在卖了许多年二手衣后,在1937年靠着省吃简用存下的500美金她实现梦想开了一家家具店,参酌当时全美最大家具交易中心-芝加哥American Furniture Mart,她将之命名为Nebraska Furniture Mart,尔后她遭遇到你所能预期的各种困难(也包括你想不到的),以500美金起家没有任何产品或地缘优势地去对抗资金雄厚、经营已久的同业竞争,在早期当她有限的资源损耗怠尽时,B太太(这个个人商标在大Omaha地区与可口可乐齐名)甚至把家中所有值钱的东西变卖一空以维持信誉。
Omaha的零售商在发现到B太太可以给顾客更低的价格时,便联手向家具及地毯工厂施压不要供货给B太太,但靠着各种不同的方法,她还是取得货源并大幅降价,甚至因而被告到法院违反公平交易法,但最后不但赢得所有官司更大大打开了知名度,其中有一个案件,在法庭中为了证明即使以现行市价打一个大折扣后,她仍有所获利,结果她卖了一条地毯给法官。
今天Nebraska Furniture 一家20万平方呎的店面,年销售额却高达一亿美金,全美没有任何一家零售家具店可以比得上,它所卖的家具、地毯与家电用品比Omaha所有其它业者加起来还多。
当我们在评断一家公司的企业价值时,我常常会问自己一个问题:「假设我有足够的资金与人才时,我愿不愿意和这家公司竞争」,我宁愿和大灰熊摔角也不愿和B太太家族竞争,他们采购有一套,经营费用低到其竞争对手想都想不到的程度,然后再将所省下的每一分钱回馈给客人,这是一家理想中的企业,建立在为客户创造价值并转化为对所有者的经济利益的基础上。
B太太凭借其高瞻远瞩与家族因素考量终于决定于去年出售公司给我们,我对这个家族与其事业已欣赏了数十年,所以整个交易很快便敲定,但B太太并没有马上回家休息如同她所说的失去斗志,相反的她仍持续担任公司的负责人,在每周七天都待在卖场,其中销售地毯更是她的擅长,一个人的业绩便足以打败所有其它零售业者。我们一共买下九成股权,剩下的一成由原有管理公司的家族成员拥有,另还预留一成的认购权给有潜力的年轻人。
遗传学家应好好研究Blumkin家族为何皆能成为优秀的经理人?Louie Blumkin- B太太的儿子担任Nebraska Furniture 的总经理已有好多年且被公认为最精明的家具与家电用品的最佳采购者,他说因为他有最好的老师,而B太太则说她有最优秀的学生,两者的说法完全正确,Louie 跟他三个儿子皆继承了Blumkin家族优秀的管理能力、勤奋工作与最重要的正直的人格特质,他们实在是不错的合伙人,很高兴能与他们一起合作。(1983)


?1983年公司的净值由原来每股737美元增加成为975美元,约成长32%,但我们从未把单一年度的数字表现看得太认真,毕竟没有什么道理要把企业反映盈余的期间与地球绕行太阳公转的周期划上等号,反而我们建议至少以五年为一周期来评断企业整体的表现,若五年平均利得要比美国企业平均来得差时,便要开始注意了(就像Goethe所观察到的,到时要注意我们所提出的解释,万一要是失败了,解释的理由可能会有一大堆)
在现有经营阶层过去十九年的任期内,帐面价值由19美元增加成为975美元,约以22.6%年复合成长率成长,考量到我们现有的规模,未来可能无法支持这么高的成长率,不信的人最好选择去当业务员而非数学家。我们之所以选择帐面价值(虽然不是所有形况皆如此)是因为它是衡量内含价值成长(这是真正重要的)的一种保守但合理的替代方式,它的好处是很容易去计算且不牵涉主观去衡量内含价值,但仍需强调这两者事实上具有截然不同的意义。
帐面价值是会计名词,系记录资本与累积盈余的财务投入,内含价值则是经济名词,是估计未来现金流入的折现值,帐面价值能够告诉你已经投入的,内含价值则是预计你能从中所获得的。类似词能告诉你之间的不同,假设你花相同的钱供二个小孩读到大学,二个小孩的帐面价值即所花的学费是一样的,但未来所获得的回报(即内含价值)却不一而足,可能从零到所付出的好几倍,所以也有相同帐面价值的公司,却有截然不同的内含价值。
像波克夏在1965年会计年度刚开始由现有经营阶层接管时,其帐面价值为每股19美金,明显高于其实际的内含价值,所谓的帐面价值主要系以那些无法赚取合理报酬的纺织设备为主,就好比是将教育经费摆在不会读书的孩子身上一样。
但如今我们的内含价值早已大幅超越帐面价值,主要的原因有两点:
(1)标准会计原则要求我们保险子公司所持有的股票以市价记录于帐面上,但其它公司部份却以成本与市价孰低法计算,到1983年底为止,后者的市价超过帐面价值有税前七千万美金或税后五千万美金之多,超过的部份属于内含价值的一部份,但不包含在计算帐面价值之内。
(2)更重要的是,我们所拥有的几家企业具有庞大的经济商誉(事实上是包含在内含价值之内的)且远大于记载在帐上的商誉。
商誉不管是经济上或是会计上的,是一项神秘的课题,实在需要比现在所报告还要更多的时间解释,本报告书的附录有关商誉及其摊销、规定与现实,将解释为何经济上与会计上的商誉事实上通常是大不相同。
虽然不用了解商誉及其摊销,你一样可以过得很好,但对于研究投资的学生或经理人也好,却有必要了解其间些微的不同,我现在的想法与35年前课堂所教要重视实质的资产并规避那些主要倚靠经济商誉的公司的作法已有明显的转变,当初的偏见虽然使我投入较少但也犯了许多投资上的疏乎。
凯恩斯发现问题所在,困难的地方不在于要有新观念,而是如何摆脱旧有的窠臼,我的反应比较慢,一方面是由于教我的老师一直以来皆让我受益良多,但从商的经历,直接或间接地让我对拥有商誉而仅须运用少量实质资产的公司大有好感。
我建议那些对会计专有名词不会觉得感冒且对商誉的经济价值有兴趣的人读读附录,而不论你看不看附录,Charlie跟我一致认为波克夏拥有比帐面价值更高经济价值的商誉。(1983)


?下表显示波克夏依照各个公司持股比例来列示帐面盈余的主要来源,而各个公司资本利得损失并不包含在内而是汇总于下表最后「已实现出售证券利得」一栏(我们认为单一年度的出售证券利得并无太大意义,但每年加总累计的数字却相当重要),至于商誉的摊销则以单一字段另行列示,虽然本表列示的方式与一般公认会计原则不尽相同但最后的损益数字却是一致的: 其中在1982年波克夏拥有Blue Chips Stamps 60%的股权,但到了1983年下半年这个比例增加到100%,而Blue Chips又拥有 Wesco 财务公司 80% 的股权,故波克夏间接拥有Wesco的股权亦由48%增加到80%。


 
 
 
 
1983
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Percent
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
100.0%
 
(33,872)
 
(33,872)
 
 
 
(18,400)
 

 
 
100.0%
 
43,810
 
43,810
 
 
 
39,114
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
100.0%
 
(100)
 
(100)
 
 
 
(63)
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
100.0%
 
697
 
697
 
 
 
355
 

Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
80.0%
 
3,812
 
3,049
 
 
 
1,521
 

See's Candies
 
89.5%
 
27,411
 
24,526
 
 
 
12,212
 

Buffalio Evening News
 
85.5%
 
19,352
 
16,547
 
 
 
8,832
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
131.9%
 
(1,422)
 
(1,876)
 
 
 
(353)
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
64.6%
 
7,493
 
4,844
 
 
 
3,448
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
58.5%
 
(798)
 
(467)
 
 
 
1,917
 

Presion Steel
 
64.9%
 
3,241
 
2,102
 
 
 
1,136
 

Amortization of Goodwill
 
 
 
(532)
 
(563)
 
 
 
(563)
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
(15,104)
 
(13,844)
 
 
 
(7,346)
 

Shareholder's Contribution
 
 
 
(3,066)
 
(3,066)
 
 
 
(1,656)
 

Other
 
 
 
10,121
 
9,623
 
 
 
8,490
 

 
 
 
 
61,043
 
51,410
 
 
 
48,644
 

?有观Wesco旗下事业会在Charlie的报告中讨论,他在1983年底接替Louie Vincenti成为Wesco的董事长,Louie由于身体健康的关系以77岁年纪退休,有时健康因素只是借口,但以Louie这次情况确是事实,他实在是一位杰出的经理人。
GEICO的特别股利系由于该公司自我们及其它股东手中买回自家股票,经过买回后我们持有的股权比例仍维持不变,整个卖回股权的过程其实等于是发放股利一样,不像个人,由于企业收到股利的实际联邦税率6.9%较资本利得税率28%低得许多,故前者可让公司股东获得更多实质收益。而即使把前述特别股利加入计算,我们在1983年从GEICO所收到的现金股利还是远低于我们依比例所赚到的盈余,因此不论从会计或经济的角度来说,将这项额外收入计入盈余当中是再适当也不过了,但由于金额过于庞大因此我们必需特别加以说明。


?前表告诉大家我们盈余的来源,包括那些不具控制权的股权投资所收到的现金股利,但却不包括那些未予分配的盈余,就长期而言,这些盈余终将反映在公司的股票市价之上,而波克夏的内含价值亦会跟随着增加,虽然我们的持股不一定表现一致,有时让我们失望,但有时却会让我们惊喜,到目前为止,情况比我们当初预期的还要好,总得来说,最后所产生的市场价值要比当初我们保留的每一块钱还要高。
下表显示在1983年底我们持有不具控制权的股权投资,所有的数字包含波克夏与80%Wesco的权益,剩下的20%已予以扣除:


Company Name
 
 
 
Shares
 
Cost
 
 
 
Market
 
Unrealized
 

Affiliated Publications, Inc.
 
(a)
 
690,975
 
3,516
 
 
 
26,603
 
23,087
 

General Foods, Inc
 
(b)
 
4,451,544
 
163,786
 
 
 
228,698
 
64,912
 

GEIGO Corporation
 
(a)
 
6,850,000
 
47,138
 
 
 
398,156
 
351,018
 

Handy & Harman
 
(a)
 
2,379,200
 
27,318
 
 
 
42,231
 
14,913
 

Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc
 
(a)
 
636,310
 
4,056
 
 
 
33,088
 
29,032
 

Media General
 
(a)
 
197,200
 
3,191
 
 
 
11,191
 
8,000
 

Ogilvy & Mather Int'l, Inc
 
(a)
 
250,400
 
2,580
 
 
 
12,833
 
10,253
 

R.J. Reynolds Industries
 
(b)
 
5,618,661
 
268,918
 
 
 
314,334
 
45,416
 

Time, Inc
 
(a)
 
901,788
 
27,732
 
 
 
56,860
 
29,128
 

The Washington Post Company
 
(a)
 
1,868,600
 
10,628
 
 
 
163,875
 
153,247
 

All Other Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
7,485
 
 
 
18,044
 
10,559
 

Total Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
566,348
 
 
 
1,305,913
 
739,565
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
217,976
 

?依照目前持股情况与股利发放率(扣除去年GEICO发放特别股利的特例)我们预期在1984年将收到约三千九百万美金的现金股利,而保留未予发放的盈余估计将达到六千五百万,虽然这些盈余对公司短期的股价将不会有太大影响,但长期来说终将显现出来。


?水牛城晚报
首先我要澄清一点,我们公司的名称是水牛城晚报公司,但所发行的报纸名称,自从一年多以前开始发行早报开始,却是水牛城新闻。
1983年公司约略超过原先设定10%的税后纯益率,主要有两项原因:(1)州的所得税因前期亏损扣抵而变得很少(2)每吨新闻印刷成本突然降低(不过隔年情况可能完全相反)
虽然水牛城新闻的获利情况在一般新闻来说表现平平,但若考量到水牛城当地的经济与销售环境,这种表现却是不凡,由于重工业聚集,故最近的不景气确使当地的一部份经济活动受到重创,且复苏缓慢,一般民众大受其害,当地的报纸也无法幸免,发行量大幅滑落,许多业者被迫删减版面作为因应,在这种窘况下,水牛城新闻却拥有一项利器-大众对其的接受程度,即渗透率(指每天每个社区家庭购买该报的比率),我们的比率相当高,以1983年九月止的前半年,水牛城新闻高居全美一百份最大报纸的第一位(这项排名系由流通量调查局依照城市邮政编码所编撰) 。
在解释所谓的排名之前,有一点必须要说明的是有许多大城市同时发行两份报纸,则其渗透率一定会比只发行一份的城市,如水牛城还低得许多,尽管如此,仍有许多名列一百大者拥有单一城市,而水牛城不但名列前茅,更远胜于许多全国赫赫有名的日报。
此外在周日版部份,水牛城的渗透率更挤进前三名,比某些大报还高上一到二十个百分点,而这并不是一开始就如此的,下表列示该报在1977前几年与现在发行量的比较,在水牛城所发行的周日报原来是Couier-express(当时水牛城日报还未发行周日报)而现在当然是水牛城日报了:


1970
 
 
 
314,000
 

1971
 
 
 
306,000
 

1972
 
 
 
302,000
 

1973
 
 
 
290,000
 

1974
 
 
 
278,000
 

1975
 
 
 
269,000
 

1976
 
 
 
270,000
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

1984
 
(现今)
 
376,000
 

?我们认为一份报纸的渗透率是该事业强弱的一项重要指针,广告主而言若一家报纸能在某一地区拥有极高渗透率的话,便能发挥极高的经济效益,相对的若渗透率很低则无法吸引太多的广告主。
而我们认为有三个原因使得水牛城日报广为当地民众所接受,其中第二与第三亦能解释为何水牛城周日报会比当时同时发行的Couier-express更受欢迎的原因:
(1)第一点与水牛城日报本身无关,水牛城居民的流动率相对较低,稳定的居民对于当地社区事务抱持着更多的关心,也因此对当地地区性报纸的在地新闻更感兴趣。
(2)该报长期由传奇人物Alfred Kirchhofer领导,以编辑品质与公正客观性著称,并由Murray Light继承并保存之,这对于我们能够成功战胜Courier-express的激烈竞争极为重要,若没有周日报,水牛城日报可能无法存活至今。
(3) 水牛城日报就如其名一般,它刊载大量的新闻,在1983年我们的新闻版面(News Hole)即真正的新闻而非广告,约占超过一半(不包括夹报的部份) ,就我们所知在所有主宰当地地区的大报之中,只有一家的比例是超越我们的,虽然没有具体明确的数字,但一般估计的平均比例约为三十几,换言之,我们提供的新闻份量比其它同业还要多上25%,事实上丰富的新闻内容是经过精心安排的,有些出版业者为了提高获利,大幅删减新闻版面,但我们却不愿如此做并坚持至今,而我们相信只要好好地撰写与编辑提供丰富的新闻内容,将是对读者最大的服务,而读者对我们刊物的珍视也将转化成极高的渗透率。
仅管水牛城日报本身极具竞争力,但是ROP (报纸版面上的广告与夹报的广告量的比)却很难有再增加的空间,虽然我们在1983年有大幅成长,广告则数由九百多万增加为一千六百多万,营收则由360万成长至810万美元,增加幅度与全美其它地区差异不大,但以我们的Case来说考量到Courier-express同时关闭则视嫌高估。
平心而论,若广告由报纸版面移到夹报对我们来说有负面的经济影响,夹报的利润较低,且受限于其它相同传递方式的竞争,更甚者ROP则数的减少连带使的新闻版面亦跟着减少(因为新闻版面须维持一定比例) ,进而减少对读者的实用性。
Stan Lipsey在年中接替Henry Urban成为水牛城日报的发行人,Henry在日报因发行周日版而面对诉颂与损失的灰暗时期从未退缩,当时这项决定受到许多当地新闻同业质疑,但Henry仍受到水牛城日报所有员工,也包含我与 Charlie的敬重,Stan跟Henry从1969年起便为波克夏工作,它对于水牛城日报从编辑到发行的大小事务亲身参与,他的表现无与伦比。(1983)


?喜斯糖果的经营表现依旧亮丽,它拥有可贵而稳固的客户基础与管理阶层,近年来喜斯遇到两个重大的难题,所幸其中至少有一个已找到解决的方法,这问题与成本有关,不过不是指原料成本,虽然我们跟竞争同业比原料成本较高,而若这种情况相反的会我们反而会不高兴,事实上原料成本是我们较无法控制的,因为不管价格如何变化,我们所使用皆属最上等的的原料,我们视产品品质为最重要的一点。
但在其它成本却是我们所可以控制的,不过问题却出在这身上,我们的成本(以每磅为基本单位,但不包括原料成本)增加的速度远高于一般物价水准,若要扭转现在的竞争劣势与获利危机,降低成本绝对有其必要性,所幸最近几个月,成本已受到有效控制,相信1984年的成本增加率将会低于通货膨胀,这自信源自于我们与Chuck多年来共事的经验,打从我们买下喜斯以来便由他负责,而他的表现就如同下表一样有目共睹:


 
 
 
 
Sales('000)
 
Profit('000)
 
Pounds('000)
 
Stores
 

1983
 
(53weeks)
 
133,531
 
13,699
 
 
 
24,651
 
207
 

1982
 
 
 
123,662
 
11,875
 
 
 
24,216
 
202
 

1981
 
 
 
112,578
 
10,779
 
 
 
24,052
 
199
 

1980
 
 
 
97,715
 
7,547
 
 
 
24,065
 
191
 

1979
 
 
 
87,314
 
6,330
 
 
 
23,985
 
188
 

1978
 
 
 
73,653
 
6,178
 
 
 
22,407
 
182
 

1977
 
 
 
62,886
 
6,154
 
 
 
20,921
 
179
 

1976
 
(53weeks)
 
56,333
 
5,569
 
 
 
20,553
 
173
 

1975
 
 
 
50,492
 
5,132
 
 
 
19,134
 
172
 

1974
 
 
 
41,248
 
3,021
 
 
 
17,883
 
170
 

1973
 
 
 
35,050
 
1,940
 
 
 
17,813
 
169
 

1972
 
 
 
31,337
 
2,083
 
 
 
16,954
 
167
 

?我们面临的另一个问题,如上表中可看到的是我们在实际售出的糖果磅数停滞不前,事实上这是这个行业普遍遇到的困难,只是过去我们的表现明显优于同业,不过现在却一样惨。过去四年来我们平均每家分店卖出的糖果数事实上无多大变化,尽管分店数有所增加(而销售费用有同样增加),当然营业额因我们大幅调涨售价而增加许多,但我们认为衡量一家店经营绩效的标准在于每家分店卖出糖果磅数而非销售额,1983年平均一家店的销售量减少了0.8%,不过这已是1979年来较好的表现了,累计的降幅约达8%,集体订购量(约占整体销售的25%)在经过1970年代成长高峰后已停滞不前。
我们不确定分店与集体订购的销售量无法增加主要是受到我们的订价策略还是景气萧条或是我们的市场占有率太高的影响,不过1984年我们调涨的幅度较以往几年温和,希望明年跟各位报告的销售量能因此增加,不过我们却无任何依据能保证这种情况一定发生。
除了销量的问题,喜斯具有多项且重要的竞争优势,在我们主要的销售地区-西部,我们的糖果为消费者所偏爱,他们甚至愿意用多花二三倍的价钱来享受(糖果就如同股票一样,价格与价值乃有所不同,价格是指你所付出的,而价值却是指你所得到的) ,我们全美直营店服务的品质跟我们的产品一样好,亲切贴心的服务人员就跟包装上的商标一样,以一家雇用二千名季节性员工的企业来说,可是不容易办到的,这都要归功于Chuck与所有同仁的努力。而由于我们在1984年仅微幅调整价格,所以预期明年度的获利只与今年相当。


?我们本身除了经营保险业外,还在这项产业有庞大的投资部位,而这些由本人作决策的事业,其经营成果显而易见的很惨,所幸那些不受本人控制的部份,如GEICO表现杰出,才避免整个集团经营亮起红灯,没错你心里想的完全正确,几年前我犯下的错误如今已找上门来了。
整个产业如下表所示,已低迷了好几个年头:


 
 
Yearly Change in
 
 
 
Combined Ratio
 

 
 
Premiums Written
 
 
 
 
 
after Policy-holder Dividends
 

 
 
%
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
%
 

1972
 
 
 
10.2%
 
 
 
 
 
96.2%
 

1973
 
 
 
8.0%
 
 
 
 
 
99.2%
 

1974
 
 
 
6.2%
 
 
 
 
 
105.4%
 

1975
 
 
 
11.0%
 
 
 
 
 
107.9%
 

1976
 
 
 
21.9%
 
 
 
 
 
102.4%
 

1977
 
 
 
19.8%
 
 
 
 
 
97.2%
 

1978
 
 
 
12.8%
 
 
 
 
 
97.5%
 

1979
 
 
 
10.3%
 
 
 
 
 
100.6%
 

1980
 
 
 
6.0%
 
 
 
 
 
103.1%
 

1981
 
 
 
3.9%
 
 
 
 
 
106.0%
 

1982
 
(Rev.)
 
4.4%
 
 
 
 
 
109.7%
 

1983
 
(Est.)
 
4.6%
 
 
 
 
 
111.0%
 

?资料明白显示出目前整个产业,包括股市、共同基金与互助会所面临的惨况,Combined Ratio代表所有的保险成本(发生的理赔损失加上费用)占保费收入的比重,一百以下表示有承销利益,反之则发生亏损
如同去年我们所揭示的原因,我们认为1983年的惨况仍将持续好几个年头,(正如Yogi所说:又是déjà vu.)不过并不表示情况不会好转,事实上一定会,只是要未来几年的平均Combined Ratio明显低于前几年的水准将不太可能,基于对通货膨胀的预期,除非保费收入每年以超过10%成长,否则损失比率将很难压到比现在的水准还低。
我们自己的Combined Ratio是121,由于最近Mike Goldberg以接手负责保险事业的经营,所以这个烫手山竽交给他来解决,要比本人亲自处理要来得好得多了,然而不幸的是,保险这行业前置期很长,虽然企业政策与人员可随时改进,但其效果却须要相当长的一段时间才能显现,(事实上我们就靠这点在投资GEICO上,赚了很多钱,我们可以在公司营运效益真正显现之前,先一步预期) ,所以目前的窘境事实上是我两三年前直接负责营运时所捅下的偻子。所以尽管整体表现不佳,但其中仍有几位经理人表现杰出,Roland所领导的National Indemnity在同业对手一片惨泹时,一支独秀,而Tom在Colorado展露头角,我们可说是挖到宝了。
近来我们在再保险领域的表现极为活跃,而事实上我们希望能够再更活跃一些,在这行投保者相当注重承保者长期的债信以确保其对之多年后的承诺得以实现,这一点波克夏所提供坚实的财务实力使我们成为客户倚赖的首选。这行生意的来源主要是终身赔偿(Structured Settlement)即损害请求者每月定期领取赔偿费直到终身而非一次给付,这对请求者来说可享受税赋上的优惠,也可避免一下子把赔偿款花得精光,通常这些被害人皆严重伤残,所以分次给付可确保其往后数十年的衣食无虞,而关于这点我们自认为可提供无与伦比的保障,没有其它再保业者,即使其资产再雄厚,有比我们更坚强的财务实力。
我们也想过或许靠着本身坚强的财务实力,可承受有意愿移转其损失赔偿准备的公司,在这类个案中,保险公司一次付给我们一大笔钱,以承担未来所有(或一大部份)须面临的损害赔偿,当然相对的受托人要让委托人对其未来年度的财务实力有信心,在这一点上我们的竞争力明显优于同业。
前述两项业务对我们而言极具潜力,且因为它们的规模与预计可产生的投资利益大到让我们特别将其承销成绩,包括Combined Ratio 另行列示,这两项业务皆由National Indemnity的Don 负责。 (1983)


?GEICO在1983年的表现之好,其程度跟我们自己掌管的保险事业差劲的程度一样,跟同业平均水准111相比,GEICO在加计预估分配给保户的股利后的数字为96,在这之前我从不认为它能够表现的如此之好,这都要归功于优异的企业策略与经营阶层。
Jack与Bill在承销部们一贯维持着良好的纪律(其中包含最重要的适当地损失准备提列)而他们的努力从新事业的开展有成获得了回报,加上投资部门的Lou Simpson,这三个人组成了保险业的梦幻队伍。
我们拥有GEICO大约三分之一的股权,依比例约拥有二亿七千万的保费收入量,约比我们本身所有的还多80%,所以可以这么说我们拥有的是全美最优质的保险业务,但这并不代表我们就不需改进自有的保险业务。(1983)


?有人常问为什么波克夏不分割它的股票,而这个问题通常是建立在这个动作将会对股东有利的假设基础之上,不过我们并不认同这点,让我告诉你为什么。
我们有一个目标是希望波克夏的股价能与其本身拥有的内含价值成正相关(请注意是合理的正相关而非完全一致,因为如果一般绩优公司的股价远低于其真正价值的话,波克夏也很难免除在外) ,而一个公司要维持合理的股价跟其所背后的股东有很大关系,若公司的股东与潜在的买家主要都是基于非理性或情绪性的投资该公司股票,则公司股票便会不时出现很离谱的价格,躁郁的人格会导致躁郁的价格,这种性格甚至有助于我们买卖其它公司的股票,但我们尽量避免这种情况跟波克夏沾上边将会对身为股东的你我有利。
很难确保公司股东皆维持高水平,A太太可依自己喜好选择其个人的四百文件投资组合,任何人都可买任何股票,没有任何公司可依智力、情绪稳定度、道德感或衣着品味来筛选股东,所以股东优生学基本上是一项不可能的任务。
但大致而言,我们觉得可透过不断地沟通公司经营哲学以吸引并维持优质的股东群,以达到自我筛选的目的。例如一场标榜为歌剧的音乐会,跟另一场以摇滚乐为号召的演唱会,铁定会吸引不同的观众群来欣赏,虽然任何人皆可自由买票进场。相同地透过不断地宣传与沟通,我们希望能够吸引到认同我们经营理念与期望的股东(一样重要的是说服那些不认同的远离我们)我们希望那些倾向长期投资且把公司当成是自己事业一样看待的股东加入我们,大家重视的是公司的经营成果而非短期的股价波动。
具有这项特质的投资人属于极少数,但我们却拥有不少,我相信大概有90%(甚至可能超过95%)的股东已投资波克夏或Blue Chips达五年以上,另外95%的股东,其持有的波克夏股票价值比起其本身第二大持股超过两倍以上,在股东上千人,市值超过十亿的公司中,我敢保证波克夏的股东与经营者的想法是最能契合的,我们很难再将我们股东的素质再加以提升。
如果我们将公司的股票分割,同时采行一些注重公司股价而非企业价值的动作,我们吸引到的新进股东其素质可能要比离开的股东差得多,当波克夏的股价为1,300元时,很少有人负担得起,对于买得起一股的人来说,将股票分割为一百股对他来说并无任何影响,而那些认为有差别且真的因为我们股票分割而买进的人肯定会将我们现有的股东水准往下拉(难到我们牺牲到那些原有思想透澈换来一堆认为九张十元钞要比一张百元钞好的蛋头真得能够提升整个股东团队的素质吗?)人们若非基于价值而买进股票早晚也会基于相同原因卖掉股票,他们的加入只会使公司的股价偏离价值面而作不合理的波动。所以我们尽量避免那些会招来短期投机客的举动,而采取那些会吸引长线价值型投资者的政策,就像你在怖满这类型投资者的股票市场中买进波克夏的股票,你也可以在相同的市场中卖出,我们尽量维持这种理想的状态。
股票市场上讽刺的一点是太过于重视变动性,经纪商称之为流动性与变现性,对那些高周转率的公司大加赞扬(那些无法让你口袋麦可麦可的人,一定会让你的耳朵不得闲)但投资人必须有所认知,那就是凡事对庄家有利的一定对赌客不利,而过热的股市跟赌场没有两样。假设一家公司的股东权益报酬率为12%,而其股票年周转率为百分之百,又若买卖股票须抽1%的手续费(低价股的费率可能还更高)而公司股票以帐面净值进行交易,这样算下来光是每年股权移转的交易成本便占去净值的百分之二,且对公司的获利一点帮助都没有,(这还不包括选择权交易,后者将会使这项磨擦成本更上一层楼)玩这种大风吹的游戏实在是有点划不来,若是政府突然宣布调高企业或个人所得税16%时,相信大家一定都会跳起来,但过度重视变动性的结果便是要付出这样的代价。
过去在每天交易量约一亿股的年代(以今日的水准算是相当低的了) ,对所有权人来说是绝对是祸不是福,因为那代表大家要付出二倍于五千万股交易量的成本,又假设每买卖一股的交易成本为十五分钱,则一年累积下来约要花费75亿美金的代价,这相当于爱克森石油、通用动力、通用汽车与太古石油这四家全美最大企业的年度盈余加总,这些公司以1982年底计有750亿美元净值,约占财富杂志五百大企业净值与获利的12%,换句话说投资人只因为手痒而将手中股票换来换去的代价等于是耗去这些大企业辛苦一年的所得,若再加计约20亿投资管理费的话,更相当于全美前五大金融机构(花旗、美国银行、大通银行、汉华银行与摩根银行)获利的总和,这昂贵的游戏只是用来决定谁能吃这块饼,但没有一点办法让饼变得更大。(我知道有一种论点说这过程能使资金作更有效的配置,但我们却怀疑其可信度,相反的过热的股市反而妨碍的资金合理的配置,反而使饼变得更小。亚当史密斯说:自由市场中有一只看不见的大手能导引经济社会使其利益极大化,我们的看法是-赌场般的股市与神经质的投资行为仿佛是一只看不见的大脚碍手碍脚地拖累了经济社会向前发展。
与那些过热的股票相比,波克夏目前的买卖价差约为30点,或大约2% ,依据交易量大小的不同,买卖双方所需支付的成本约略从4%(只买卖几股)递减至1 1/2 %(若量大的话可以议价方式降低差价与手续费),而波克夏的股票交易单量通常较大,故平均成本不超过2%。同时波克夏股票的周转率(扣除盘商间交易与亲属赠与)每年约仅3%,也就是说总的而言,波克夏股东每年所付出的交易成本约占其市值的万分之六,粗估约为90万美金(这笔金额不少,但远低于市场平均) ,股票分割会增加交易成本,降低股东素质并鼓励公司股价与其内含价值悖离,我们想不到有任何一点好处。(1983)


?去年这时我登了一小段广告寻求可能的购并对象,在我们的新闻事业我们告诉广告主重复刊登便会有结果(事实上是如此),所以今年我再复述一次我们购并的标准: 我们对具以下条件的公司有兴趣:
(1)钜额交易(每年税后盈余至少有五百万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)
我们不会进行敌意购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。我们欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听,对于那些好的公司与好的经营阶层,我们可以提供一个好的归属。(1983)


?今年的股东指定捐赠计划约有96.4%的有效票参与,总计在1984年初(帐列1983年)捐出的款项分配给1,353家慈善机构,共计约三百万美元,虽然股东回复占股权的比率颇高,但占股东总数的比率却不甚理想,主要的原因可能是新购并进来的股东人数较多且不熟悉本计划的内容,我们建议新股东赶快阅读相关信息,若你也想参加的话,我们强烈建议你赶快把股份从经纪人那儿改登记于自己的名下。(1982)


?Blue Chips与波克夏的合并案顺利完成,仅有低于0.1%的股东表示反对,也没有人要求再评估,在1983年我们因而获得了一些租税上的优惠,我们预期往后几年能够再获得一些,此外整个合并案有个小插曲,相较于1965年现有经营阶层接手时的1,137,778股,波克夏现今有1,146,909股流通在外,若你当初持有1%的股权约等于现在的0.99%股权,不过波克夏的资产已从过去单纯的纺织机器设备厂房,增加为拥有新闻、糖果、家具与保险事业,外加13亿美金的有价证券。
我们欢迎原来是Blue Chips的股东加入我们,为了帮助你们对波克夏有进一步的认识,只要来信索取我们很愿意将1977-1982的年报寄给各位。(1983)

一九八四年


1984年波克夏的净值约增加了一亿五千万美金,每股约等于133美金,这个数字看起来似乎还不错,不过若考虑所投入的资金,事实上只能算普通,二十年来我们的净值约以22.1%年复合成长率增加(从1965年的19.46到1984年的1,108.77) ,去年则只有13.6%。
    如同我们去年曾提过的,真正重要的是每股内含价值的成长率,不过由于其涉及太多主观的意见而难以计算,所以以我们的情况,通常用帐面价值当作代替(虽然通常是有点低估) ,我个人认为在1984年内含价值与帐面价值增加的程度可谓相当。
过去个人以学术角度曾跟各为提到暴增的资本将会托累资本报酬率,不幸的是今年我们以报导新闻的方式跟各位报告,过去动辄22%的成长率已成历史,在往后十年我们大约要赚到39亿美金,每年才能以15%成长(假设我们仍维持目前的股利政策,后面我会详加讨论),想要顺利达成目标,必需要有一些极棒的点子,我跟我的执行合伙人Charlie Munger目前并无任何够棒点子,不过我们的经验是有时它会突然冒出来。

?下表显示波克夏帐列盈余的来源,由于年中与Blue Chips合并致使我们在一些长期投资的股权发生变动,
而各个公司资本利得损失并不包含在内而是汇总于下表最后「已实现出售证券利得」一栏(我们认为单一年度的出售证券利得并无太大意义,但每年加总累计的数字却相当重要),至于商誉的摊销则以单一字段另行列示,虽然本表列示的方式与一般公认会计原则不尽相同但最后的损益数字却是一致的:


 
 
 
 
1984
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Percent
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
100.0%
 
(48,060)
 
(48,060)
 
 
 
(25,955)
 

 
 
100.0%
 
68,903
 
68,903
 
 
 
62,059
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
100.0%
 
418
 
418
 
 
 
226
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
100.0%
 
(1,072)
 
(1,072)
 
 
 
(579)
 

Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
80.0%
 
14,511
 
11,609
 
 
 
5,917
 

See's Candies
 
100.0%
 
26,644
 
26,644
 
 
 
13,380
 

Buffalio Evening News
 
100.0%
 
27,328
 
27,328
 
 
 
13,317
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
100.0%
 
(1,843)
 
(1,843)
 
 
 
(899)
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
80.1%
 
9,777
 
7,831
 
 
 
4,828
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
80.1%
 
1,456
 
1,166
 
 
 
3,151
 

Presion Steel
 
80.1%
 
4,092
 
3,278
 
 
 
1,696
 

Amortization of Goodwill
 
 
 
(1,434)
 
(1,434)
 
 
 
(1,434)
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
(14,734)
 
(14,097)
 
 
 
(7,452)
 

Shareholder's Contribution
 
 
 
(3,179)
 
(3,179)
 
 
 
(1,716)
 

Other
 
 
 
4,932
 
4,529
 
 
 
3,476
 

 
 
 
 
87,739
 
82,021
 
 
 
70,015
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
 
 
112,810
 
109,272
 
 
 
78,881
 

Total Earnings-all entities
 
 
 
200,549
 
191,293
 
 
 
148,896
 

?比较细心的股东可能会发现GEICO特别股利的金额与其分类的位置有变动,虽然损益数字些微受到影响,但实质上并无太大差别,但背后的故事却相当有趣。
如同去年我报告过的,(1)1983年中GEICO 宣布实施库藏股买回自家股票(2)同时我们签署协议同意GEICO 自我们手中买回等比例的股份(3)总结最后我们卖还给GEICO 35万股,并收到2,100万现金,而我们在GEICO的持股比例则维持不变(4)我们著名的律师事务所认可这整件交易为减资(5)依税法我们只要缴交6.9%的集团企业间股利税(6)最重要的是这2,100万现金比我们未认列的未分配盈余少得多,故经济实质面而言,我们将之视为股利的分配。
但由于这种情况并不常见且金额又不小,所以在去年季报与年报中我们特别加以分别列示,并且经我们的本地签证会计师认可同意。
而1984年General Foods也发生同样的状况,只是后者是直接自公开市场中买回,所以我们每天卖出一点股份以使我们在该公司的持股比例维持不变,同样的双方在交易之前已签订好协议,且我们收到的现金比我们在该公司未认列的未分配盈余少得多,总计我们收到2,100万现金,而持股比例则维持在8.75%不变。
但这时签证会计师的纽约总部却跳出来讲话,否决的其分所的结论,认定我们与GEICO 与General Foods之间的交易属于股权买卖而非股利分配,在这种情况下,我们所收到的现金被认定为出售股票收入,在扣除当初的原始投资成本后,应列示为资本利得,当然这只是会计上的处理与税务无关。
虽然我们并不认同纽约方面的看法,但为免会计师出具保留意见,我们仍勉强接收,并重编1983年的报表,尽管如此,公司实质上未受任何影响,我们在这两家公司的权益、帐上的现金、所得税与持有股权的市值皆维持不变。
而今年我们又与General Foods签订类似的协议,为了确保在税法上得以认定为股利分配,我们仍将在该公司维持持有的股权比例不变,当然若后续还有类似的情况我们一定会跟所有的股东报告。而在参与过这么多次类似的交易后,我们觉得这种作法对不卖出股份的股东同样有利,当一家经营绩效良好且财务基础健全的公司发现自家的股价远低于其内含价值时,买回自家股票是保障股东权益最好的方法了。
但我必须说明我是指那些基于本益比角度的买回,并不包括那种不道德的green-mail(在这类交易中,甲乙双方为自身私利协议剥削不知情的丙方,甲方-是指职业股东在刚买下股票后,便对公司经营阶层发出要钱或是要命的勒索,而乙方-是指息事宁人的公司经营阶层,愿意用高价买回,只要这个钱不要是他出的就好,丙方-就这样被牺牲,别人花钱他来买单,结果公司经营阶层还信势旦旦的说要维持公司利益,而不知情的股东只能呆呆的被宰还不自知。
去年我们几个投资部位较大的被投资公司只要其价格与价值差异颇大时,都努力买回自家股份,而对于身为股东的我们而言,有两点好处
第一点很明显,是一个简单的数学问题,透过买回公司的股票,等于只要花一块钱的代价便能够获得两块钱的价值的,所以每股的内含价值可大大的提高,这比花大钱去购并别人的公司的效果要好得多。
第二点较不明显,且没有什么人知道,实际上也很难去衡量,但时间一长其效果越明显,那就是管理当局可透过买回自家的股票来对外宣示其重视股东权益的心而非一昧的要扩张个人经营事业的版图,因为后者往往不但对股东没有帮助,甚至反而有害股东的利益。如此一来,原有的股东与有兴趣的投资人将会对公司的前景更具信心,而股价便会向上反应而与其本身的价值更为接近。
相对地那一些成天把维护股东权益的口号挂在嘴边,却对买回自家股票的建议置之不理的人,很难说服大家他不是口是心非,久而久之,他便会被市场投资人所离弃。
最近我们靠前三大持股-GEICO、General Foods与华盛顿邮报大量买回自家股票(艾克森-我们的第四大持股也积极买回股票,只是因为我们是最近才建立部位,所以影响不大),而大发利市,我们对于投资这种具竞争优势同时又真正注重股东权益的管理阶层感到相当安心。


?下表显示我们在1984年底,主要的投资部位(所有数字已扣除Wesco等公司的少数股权)


Company Name
 
 
 
Shares
 
Cost
 
 
 
Market
 
Unrealized
 

Affiliated Publications, Inc.
 
(a)
 
690,975
 
3,516
 
 
 
32,908
 
29,392
 

American Boradcasting Company
 
(a)
 
740,400
 
44,416
 
 
 
46,738
 
2,322
 

Exxon Corporation
 
(a)
 
3,895,710
 
173,401
 
 
 
175,307
 
1,906
 

General Foods, Inc
 
(b)
 
4,047,191
 
149,870
 
 
 
226,137
 
76,267
 

GEIGO Corporation
 
(a)
 
6,850,000
 
45,713
 
 
 
397,300
 
351,587
 

Handy & Harman
 
(a)
 
2,379,200
 
27,318
 
 
 
38,662
 
11,344
 

Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc
 
(a)
 
818,872
 
2,570
 
 
 
28,149
 
25,579
 

Media General
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Northwest Industries
 
(a)
 
555,949
 
26,581
 
 
 
27,242
 
661
 

Ogilvy & Mather Int'l, Inc
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

R.J. Reynolds Industries
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Time, Inc
 
(a)
 
2,553,488
 
89,327
 
 
 
109,162
 
19,835
 

The Washington Post Company
 
(a)
 
1,868,600
 
10,628
 
 
 
149,955
 
139,327
 

All Other Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
11,634
 
 
 
37,326
 
25,692
 

Total Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
584,974
 
 
 
1,268,886
 
683,912
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
(55,653)
 

?最近十年来实在很难找得到同时能够符合我们质与量(价格与价值的差距)标准的投资标的,我们尽量避免降格以求,但你知道什么事都不做才是最困难的一件事(有一位英国政治家将该国十九世纪的伟大归功于统治者的无为而治,但历史学家可以随随便便就提议,不过后继统治者却很难真得做得到)
除了先前曾提到的数字,有关Wesco的经营理念在Charlie Munger写的报告中会详加描述。
此外我们实际掌控的企业,如Nebraska家具店、喜斯糖果、水牛城日报与保险事业集团的经营,将在稍后加以说明
Nebraska家具店
去年我曾介绍过B太太跟她的家族的优异表现,不过事实上我还低估他们的管理才能与人格特质,B太太身为公司的负责人,现年九十一岁,当地的报纸曾形容她每天工作完便回家吃饭睡觉,每晚等不到天亮便急着要回店里头上班,每天从早到晚,每周工作七天,她一天所决定的事情可能比一家大公司总裁一年内决定的事还多(当然是指好的决策)
今年五月B太太荣获纽约大学颁赠荣誉博士学位,(她是个跳级生,在她获得这个学位之前,从来没有到学校上过一天课),在她之前获颁这项殊荣的包有括艾克森石油总裁、花旗银行总裁、IBM总裁与通用汽车总裁等杰出企业人士。
而B家族有其母必有其子,由他们的表现可以得知,Louie B太太的儿子跟他三个小孩,皆遗传到B太太的个性,去年NFM单店的营业额增加一千多万美金,成为一亿一千多万,是全美单店业绩最高的一家家具量贩店,事实上它的成功不是没有道理的,以下数字说明一切
根据去年财报,全国最大的家具零售商-Levitz 自夸其所卖价格要比当地所有传统家具店要便宜许多,而该公司的毛利率却高达44.4%(亦即消费者每付100元所买的货品,公司的成本只要55.6元)而NFM的毛利却只有前者的一半,其所凭借的便是优异的效率(包含薪资、租金与广告费等成本只占营业额的16.5%),我们不是要批评Levitz,事实上该公司经营亦颇出色,只是NFM的表现实在是太好了,(记着这一切的一切都是从B太太1937年的五百块本钱开始),靠着精打细算与大量采购的成本优势,NFM在供献股东盈余的同时,也替顾客节省了可观的采购预算,这一点也使得该公司的客户分布越来越广。
人们常常问我,B太太到底有什么经营诀窍,而其实说穿了也不是什么深奥的道理,他们整个家族(1)对事业怀抱的热情与冲劲会让富兰克林与Horatio Alger看起来像辍学生(2)脚踏实地的去落实并果断的决定要作的事情(3)不受外在对于公司竞争力没有帮助的诱惑(4)对待所有人皆能保持高尚的人格
我们对于B太太家族的人格的信任可从以下交易过程看出,NFM从来未找会计师查核,我们也从未对存货进行盘点或核对应收帐款或固定资产,我们便交给她一张五千五百万的支票,而她给我们的是一句口头的承诺。
我们很荣幸能与B太太合伙作生意(1984)
喜斯糖果
下表是该公司自从被Blue Chips买下后,对其表现的一段回顾:


 
 
 
 
Sales('000)
 
Profit('000)
 
Pounds('000)
 
Stores
 

1984
 
 
 
135,946
 
13,380
 
 
 
24,759
 
214
 

1983
 
(53weeks)
 
133,531
 
13,699
 
 
 
24,651
 
207
 

1982
 
 
 
123,662
 
11,875
 
 
 
24,216
 
202
 

1981
 
 
 
112,578
 
10,779
 
 
 
24,052
 
199
 

1980
 
 
 
97,715
 
7,547
 
 
 
24,065
 
191
 

1979
 
 
 
87,314
 
6,330
 
 
 
23,985
 
188
 

1978
 
 
 
73,653
 
6,178
 
 
 
22,407
 
182
 

1977
 
 
 
62,886
 
6,154
 
 
 
20,921
 
179
 

1976
 
(53weeks)
 
56,333
 
5,569
 
 
 
20,553
 
173
 

1975
 
 
 
50,492
 
5,132
 
 
 
19,134
 
172
 

1974
 
 
 
41,248
 
3,021
 
 
 
17,883
 
170
 

1973
 
 
 
35,050
 
1,940
 
 
 
17,813
 
169
 

1972
 
 
 
31,337
 
2,083
 
 
 
16,954
 
167
 

?看得出其表现并非处于持续成长的状态,事实上盒装巧克力这行业的获利情况并不一定,有的品牌赔钱,但有的却颇有赚头,就我们所知只有一家竞争对手维持高获利,而喜斯的成功要归功于优秀的产品与杰出的经营人才-Chuck Huggins.
尽管在1984年我们产品价格的涨幅不若以往,大约1.4%,不过还好我们在过去几年一直困扰我们的成本控制问题上大有进展,除了我们无法控制原料成本外,其它费用仅较去年增加2.2%。过去我们由于单店销售数量(指重量,而非金额)略微下滑,整体销量只能靠增加门市来扩张,当然使得销售成本恶化,1984年单店销量减少1.1%,但整体销量因扩点的关系成长0.6%(两者皆已将1983年53周的因素列入考量)
喜斯糖果的销售受到季节因素的影响越来越大,在圣诞节到来的前四周,其业绩与获利分别占全年的四成与七成五,此外复活节与情人节期间的业绩也特别好,至于平时的生意表现便平平,不过也因为如此使得管理部门与员工在忙季特别辛苦,须要特别的耐性来处理大量的订单。而即使如此服务态度与产品品质却一点也没有打折扣,至于其它同业我就不管保证,事实上有的为了降低成本增加保存期限而添加防腐剂或将成品加以冷冻,我们宁愿大家辛苦一点而拒绝这样的作法。
此外我们的店在非假日期间遭遇到一些新式食物与零食店的竞争,所幸在1984年我们推出六种新式糖果棒加以反击,其效果颇佳广为消费者所接受,目前我们正在研发新产品预计在不久的未来推出上市。
展望明年我们期望把成本增加幅度压得比通货膨胀率低,当然这比必须要增加单店的销量来加以配合,预估平均售价将调涨6-7%,获利将稳定成长。
水牛城晚报
1984年该报的获利超过我们的预期,与喜斯糖果控制成本一样具成效,不包括编辑室,整体的工作时数减少约2.8%,由于生产力的增进,使得整体成本减少约4.9%,Stan Lipsey与其经营团队的表现为业界之最,但我们同时也面临一项不利的因素,在年中我们与工会签订一项数年的工作合约,使得工资大幅调涨,基于过去1977-1982年该报亏损时,工会与员工一致配合的态度,是使我们战胜Courier-express的关键因素,所以我们认为这种调整尚属合理,若非当时我们及时将成本降低,现在的结局可能完全相反,而由于这项调整案系分阶段进行,所以对1984年的影响有限,但到明年此时便会全数反应,虽然我们可以努力提高生产力作为因应,但不可避免的明年的单位劳动成本将大幅增加,而新闻印刷成本预估也将增加,由于这两项不利因素,明年毛利将略微下滑。
但另外有两点是对公司有利的:
(1)本报发行流通的范围是一个广告效用极高的地区,相对于一般地区性报纸对广告主的效益极为有限,一个几百英哩远的订户对于位在本地的杂货店来说一点效用也没有,对于一家报社来说,其揩支主要取决于总发行量,而其广告收入(约占总营收的七到八成)却要依靠实际有效的发行量。
(2)水牛城报纸的零售业绩特别突出,广告主只要凭着这份报纸便能将信息传递到所有潜在的客户手中。
去年我曾告诉各位该报优异的读者接受度(在全美前一百大报纸中,我们在平日排名第一、而假日则排第三) ,最新的资料显示前者仍维持第一、而后者则跃居第二位(不过我们水牛城的订户数却减少,主要是在平日部份) ,而我们曾提到高接受度的原因是由于我们丰富的新闻内容(在相同规模的报纸中,我们提供的新闻量是最多的) ,1984年的比率是50.9%(相较于去年的50.4%),远较一般的35%-40%高出许多,而我们也会继续维持在50%以上的比率,另外去年我们虽然减少一般部门的工作时数,但编辑部门的编制却维持不变,虽然编辑室的开支增加达9.1%,远较总成本增加4.9%为高。
在商业社会中,一家强势报纸的优势是极为明显的,老板通常相信惟有努力地推出最好的产品才能维持高获利,但是这种令人信服的理论却让无法令人信服的事实打破,当一流的报纸维持高获利时,三流报纸所赚得的钱却一点也不逊色有时甚至更多,只要你的报纸在当地够强势,当然产品的品质对于一家报纸提高市场占极为关键,而我们也相信在水牛城也是如此,而且像Alfred这样的人能领先我们的最主要原因亦是如此。
一旦主宰当地市场,报纸本身而非市场将会决定这份报纸是好还是坏,不过好或坏,终将大发利市,在一般行业却不是这样,不良品质的产品它的生意一定不好,但即使是一份内容贫乏的报纸对一般民众来说仍具有布告栏的价值,其它条件相同时,一份烂报当然无法像一份一流报纸拥有广大的读者,但对一般市民却仍具用处,而间接使得广告主认同其存在的价值。
因为市场对于报纸品质的要求水准并不高,管理阶层便须自我要求,我们的报纸在量的方面具体地要求新闻成本须高于一般同业水准,而我们也有信心Stan Lipsey与Murray Light会继续在质的方面予以加强,Charlie与我皆相信报纸是社会中的一特殊机构,我们相当引以为傲,也期待在往后的日子更将更上层楼。

?


 
 
Yearly Change in
 
 
 
Combined Ratio
 

 
 
Premiums Written
 
 
 
 
 
after Policy-holder Dividends
 

 
 
%
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
%
 

1972
 
 
 
10.2%
 
 
 
 
 
96.2%
 

1973
 
 
 
8.0%
 
 
 
 
 
99.2%
 

1974
 
 
 
6.2%
 
 
 
 
 
105.4%
 

1975
 
 
 
11.0%
 
 
 
 
 
107.9%
 

1976
 
 
 
21.9%
 
 
 
 
 
102.4%
 

1977
 
 
 
19.8%
 
 
 
 
 
97.2%
 

1978
 
 
 
12.8%
 
 
 
 
 
97.5%
 

1979
 
 
 
10.3%
 
 
 
 
 
100.6%
 

1980
 
 
 
6.0%
 
 
 
 
 
103.1%
 

1981
 
 
 
3.9%
 
 
 
 
 
106.0%
 

1982
 
 
 
4.4%
 
 
 
 
 
109.7%
 

1983
 
(Rev.)
 
4.5%
 
 
 
 
 
111.9%
 

1984
 
(Est.)
 
8.1%
 
 
 
 
 
117.7%
 

?上表充份显示出整个产险业所面临到的状况,Combined Ratio代表保险总成本(产生的损失与费用)占保费收入的比率,当它低于一百时表示有承保利益,反之则有承保损失,过去几年我一再强调公司每年惟有保持10%以上的保费成长速度方能确保此比率不变,这是基于费用占保费收入的比例不变,而理赔损失将因为单量、通膨与法院判决扩大理赔范围等原因,而每年成长百分之十的假设。而不幸的是,实际情况真如我所预言,总计从1979-1984年间保费收入约增加61%(平均年增率10%),而Combined Ratio与1979年一样皆是100.6,相较之下,同业保费平均增加30%,而Combined Ratio则变成117.7,而到今天我们仍相信保费收入的年变动率是承保获利趋势的最佳指针。目前显示明年的保费年增率将超过10%,所以假设明年不会发生什么特别大的灾害,我们预期Combined Ratio将往好的方向发展,然而若依照目前产业损失的估计(及年增率10%)保费收入必须连徐续五年成长15%,才能将Combined Ratio降回到100,亦即代表到1989年时保费须成长整整一倍,这似乎是不太可能的一件事,所以持平而言,我们预期保费每年将成长约略超过10%,而Combined Ratio在产业竞争激烈的情况下,将维持在108-113区间。
我们自己在1984年的Combined Ratio是可怜的134(在这里我不包括Structured Settlement在内)这是连续三年我们的表现比同业水准差,我们预期明年Combined Ratio会变好,而且也会比同业表现的好,Mike 自从从我手中接下保险业务后已改正了不少先前我所犯下的错误,而且过去几年我们的业务集中在一些表现不如预期的保单上,这种情况将有助于与我们竞争的同业退缩甚至出局,而当竞争局势打破后,我们就可以提高保费而不怕失去客户。过去几年我一再告诉各位总有一天我们坚强的财务实力将有助于我们取得保险营运的竞争优势,而这一天终将来临,无疑的我们是全美产险营运最佳,资金最雄厚的保险公司(甚至比一些有名规模又大的公司还要好) ,同样重要的是公司的政策便是要持续维持此优势,保单购买者用钱所换到的只是一纸承诺,而这纸承诺必须要经得起所有的逆境而非顺境的考验,最低限度,它必须要能够经得起低迷股市与特别不利的承保状况等双重考验,我们的保险子公司有意愿也有能力确保其承诺在任何状况下兑现,这是没有多少家保险公司能做得到的。
我们的财务实力对于去年曾提过的Structured Settlement与损失准备提列业务上来说是一项很好用的利器,Structured Settlement的理培申请户与申请再保的保险公司必须要百分之百确定在往后的几十年内能顺利获得支付,很少产险公司能够符合这种要求(事实上只有少数几家公司能让我们有信心将我们自己的风险再保出去) ,而我们在这方面的业务大有成长,我们持有用以弥补可能的负债的资金从一千六百万成长至三千万,我们预期这项业务将继续成长且成长速度更快,为此我们特地为执行该业务的哥伦比亚保险公司办理增资,虽然竞争颇为激列但获利却也令人满意。


?至于GEICO的消息与往常一样大致上都不错,这家公司1984年在其主要业务的投保户大幅增加,而其投资部们的表现一样优异,虽然承销结果不尽理想,但仍较同业突出,截至去年底我们拥有该公司36%的权益,若以其产险总保费收入亿八千万计,我们的部份约有三亿二千万左右,大约是我们自己承保量的二倍。
过去几年我一再提醒各位GEICO的股价涨幅明显超越其本业的表现,虽然后者一样杰出,GEICO在我们公司的帐面价值成长幅度大于该公司本身内含价值的成长幅度,而我同时也警告各位这种情形不会年复一年地一再发生,总有一天其股价的表现将逊于本业,而这句话在1984年应验了,去年GEICO在波克夏的帐面值没什么变动,不过其公司的内含价值却大幅增加,而由于GEICO代表着波克夏27%的净值,当其市场价值迟滞不前,直接便影响到波克夏净值成长的表现,但我们对这样的结果并不会觉得有什么不好,我们宁愿要GEICO的企业价值增加X倍而股价下跌,也不要公司内含价值减半而股价高涨,以GEICO这个case,乃至于我们所有的投资,我们看得是公司本质的表现而非其股价的表现,如果我们对公司的看法正确,市场终将还它一个公道。
所有的波克夏股东皆由于GEICO的经营团队,包括Jack Byrne、Bill Snyder与Lou Simpson而获益良多,在他们的核心事业-低成本的汽车与房屋住宅保险,GEICO拥有显著且持续的竞争优势,这在一般业界并不多见,可谓投资人的稀世珍宝(GEICO本身正说明的这一点,优秀的经营团队将所有的重心放在核心事业以维持高获利能力) ,GEICO核心事业所产生的资金大部份皆交由Lou Simpson来投资,Lou是一个情绪与理性兼具的罕见人才,这项人格特色使其在长期投资方面有杰出表现,即使承受的较低的风险,其投资报酬却较同业表现要好的许多,我对以上三位杰出经理人表达赞赏与感谢之意。


?我认为所有在产险业有重大投资的股东对于这行业每年盈余报告的一项盲点要特别注意,Phil Graham在担任华盛顿邮报的发行人时曾说:「新闻日报是攥写历史的第一手草稿」,而很不幸的,产险业者所提供的年度财务报告,也可称得上是该公司财务与经营状况的第一手草稿。
主要的问题在于成本,保险业最主要的成本是保户的理赔,而对于当年的收入会发生多少损失实在是很难以去估计,有时损失的发生与其程度要在好几十年之后才会明朗。一般来说,产险业当年度认列的损失主要包含有下列几项: (1)当年发生且支付的损失 (2)对于已发生且提报但仍未合解案件的估计损失 (3) 对于已发生但尚未提报,亦即保险业者尚不知情案件所作的损失估计数字(一般业界称之为IBNR-发生了但尚未提报) 以及 (4)对于以前年度对于前述(2)(3)项估计所作之调整
虽然上述的调整时间可能会拉得很长,但不管怎样,先前在X年所估数字与实际的差异,于以后年度不论是X+1 或是 X+10年,一定要修正回来,而这无可避免地,也将使得以后年度的损益数字遭到误导,举例来说,假设我们的一位保户在1979年受伤,而当时估计的理赔金额为一万美元,所以在当年度我们便会在帐上提列一万美元的损失与准备,又若后来到了1984年商双方以十万美元合解,结果我们必须还要于1984年另行认列九万美元的损失,虽然我们明知道该项损失系属于1979年所发生的,又再假设那是我们在1979年所接惟一的个案,则公司的损益与股东的权益将明显遭到误导。
不管管理当局的意图如何地正当,由于需要广泛地应用”估计”来组合产险业财务报表上所有看似真确的损益数字,所以无可避免地其中一定隐含着某些错误。而为了减少这类错误,大部份的保险人运用各种不同的统计方法来调整其对成千上万的被保险人之损失估算以作为加总估计所有应付义务的基础资料,而除此之外另外提列的特别准备则称之为补充准备,而调整的目的是要使得损失在真正确定支付金额之前高估与低估的机率尽量接近百分之五十。
在波克夏我们已另加一项我们认为合理的损失准备,然而近年来它们却显得不太适当,而在此有必要让各位知道牵涉到这项损失准备提列错误的严重性,如此大家便可明了此提列过程是如何地不合理,从而判断公司的财务报表是否存在某些系统性的偏差。
下表显示近年来我们跟各位报告的保险承销成绩,同时并提供一年之后以”若当时我们知道则我们认为我们现在认为应该是如何”的基础下的计算数字,而所谓地”我们认为我们现在认为应该是如何”系因为这其中还包含许多对以前发生的损失所作的估计调整,然而这些损失却还没有作最后的确定,只是因为一年的经过使得整个估计过程较为准确而已。
(Structured Settlement 与loss reserve assumption等保险业务不包括其中)


 
 
 
 
Underwritting Results
 
Corrected Figures
 
Differenciation
 

 
 
 
 
as Reported to You
 
 
 
After One Year Experience
 

1980
 
 
 
6,738,000
 
 
 
 
 
14,887,000
 
 
 
8,149,000
 

1981
 
 
 
1,478,000
 
 
 
 
 
(1,118,000)
 
 
 
(2,596,000)
 

1982
 
 
 
(21,462,000)
 
 
 
 
 
(25,066,000)
 
 
 
(3,604,000)
 

1983
 
 
 
(33,192,000)
 
 
 
 
 
(50,974,000)
 
 
 
(17,782,000)
 

1984
 
 
 
(45,413,000)
 
 
 
 
 
?
 
 
 
?
 

?为了让各为近一步了解上表,让我们以1984年的数字加以解释,当年的税前承保损失为四千五百万(这其中包括二千七百万为当年度所发生的损失,加上前一年度一千七百万估计的差异数)
由此你可以发现,我跟各位报告的数字与实际所发生的数字有很大的出入,而且这几年的差异数越来越不利,这特别让我觉得非常地懊恼,因为(1)我一向自认说话算话(2)我和我的保险事业经理人若早发现事情的严重性一定不会坐视不管(3)我们少估计了损失,等于是多付给国库本来不需付的税金(虽然早晚会修正回来,只是时间拉得越长,我们损失的利息就越多) 。
而由于我们将整个重心摆在意外险与再保险事业,比起其它产险业者我们在估计损失这上头隐含更多问题,(当你承保的一栋建筑物烧毁了,你可以很快地在损失成本上作反应,比起一家向你投保的雇主发现他一名退休的员工在几十年前因工作关系感染某种疾病)即便如此,我仍对于所犯的错误感到不好意思,在直接投保部份,我们大大低估了法院及陪审团不顾事实真相与过去判例对损害赔偿的认定,而要求我们这些所谓深口袋付钱的群起效应,我们也低估了一般大众对于受伤者应获得钜额补偿的传染效应。在再保险部份,既然我们自身已低估了应提列准备,向我们寻求再保的保险公司也犯了相同的错误,由于我们的损失系依据对方所提供的资料提存,所以他们犯的错也等于是我们犯的错一样。
最近我听到一则故事可以用来说明保险业目前所遇到的会计问题,有一位仁兄因公赴海外出差,有一天接到他姐姐来电表示父亲因意外身故,由于一时无法赶回国内参加丧礼,他便交待姐姐处理一切丧葬事宜并允诺负责所有费用,之后当他回国后不久便收到一张几百块美金的帐单,他马上就把它给付掉,不过隔一阵子他又收到一张15元的帐单,而他也付了,可是没想到一个月过后他再度收到类似15元的帐单,他终于忍不住打电话给他姐姐问一问是怎么回事,只见他老姐在电话的另一头淡淡地表示:「噢! 没什么,忘了告诉你,那是因为爸爸身上穿的那套西装是用租的」如果这几年你是从事保险业-尤其是再保险事业的话,这段故事听下来可能会让你很心痛,尽管我们已尽可能让所有类似前述的西装租金列入在当期的财务报表上,但过去这几年的结果却令我们感到汗颜,也足以引起各位的怀疑,在往后的年报中我会持续跟诸位报告每年浮现的差异,不论是有利或是不利的。
当然在产险业间,不是所有准备提列不当的错误都是无心之过,随着承保绩效持续恶化,加上管理当局在损失准备提列乃至于财务报表表达上有很大的裁量权,所以人性黑暗的一面便彰显出来,有些公司若真正认真去评估其可能发生的损失成本的话,他们可能早已不适合再继续经营下去,在这种情况下,有些被迫往特别乐观的方向去看待那些还未支付的潜在赔偿款,有些则从事一些可以将损失暂时隐藏起来的交易行为。当然这些行为可以撑过一阵子,外部独立的会计师也很难有效地对这类行为加以规范制止,当一家保险公司的实际上的负债大于资产时,通常必须由公司本身宣告自己死亡,在这种强调自我诚信的制度下,尸体本身通常会一再给自己翻案复活的机会。
在大部份的公司,倒闭的原因是因为现今周转不灵,但保险公司的情况却不是如此,你挂掉时可能还脑满肠肥,因为保费是从保户一开始投保时便收到,但理赔款却是在损失发生之后许久才须支付,所以一家保险公司可能要在耗尽净值之后许久才会真正耗用完资金,而事实上这些所谓的活死人,通常更卯尽全力以任何价格承担任何风险来吸收保单,以始得现金持续流入,这种态度就好象一个亏空公款去赌博的职员,只能被迫继续污公司的钱再去赌,期望下一把能够幸运的捞回本钱以弥补以前的亏空,而即使不成功反正污一百万是死罪,污一千万也是死罪,只要在事情东窗事发之前,他们还是能够继续保有原来的职位与待遇。
别的产险公司所犯的错对波克夏来说,不是只是听听而已,我们不但身受那些活死人削价竞争之痛,当他们真得倒闭时,我们也要跟着倒霉,因为许多州政府设立的偿债基金系依照保险业经营状况来征收,波克夏最后可能被迫要来分担这些损失,且由于通常要很晚才会发现,事件会远比想象中严重,,而原本体质较弱但不致倒闭的公司可能因而倒闭,最后如滚雪球一般,一发不可收拾,当然如果管理当局发现的早而及时加以防范,强制那些烂公司结束经营,当可防止问题进一步扩大。


?从1983年十月到1984年六月间,波克夏的保险子公司持续买进大笔的华盛顿公用电力供应系统的一、二、三期债券(WPPSS 就是那家在1983年七月因无法履约偿还当初发行二十二亿美元债券用以兴建四、五期电厂计划(现已放弃)的公司,虽然这两种债券在义务人、承诺事项与抵押担保品上有极大不同,但四、五期问题的发生对于一、二、三期债券来说,已蒙上一层阴影,且有可能对后续发行债券产生重大问题,此外一、二、三期本身的一些问题也可能摧毁Bonneville所提供原先看起来颇具信用基础的保证。尽管有这些负面因素,但Charlie跟我评估以我们当出买进时所承担的风险与购买的价格(远低于现在的市价)来说,其预期报酬仍足以弥补所要承担的风险。
如你所知我们为保险子公司买进上市公司股票的标准与我们买下整家企业的标准并无二致,然而这种企业评价模式并未广为基金经理人所应用,甚至还遭到学术人士批评,尽管如此,对于那些追随者来说却颇为受用(对此有些学者会说,或许实际上真得可行,但理论上一定行不通,简单地说,若我们能以合理的价格买到代表一小部份优良企业的经济利益,且能累积一些这样的投资组合的话,对我们来说也是一件不错的事。而我们甚至把这种评价模式衍伸到像WPPSS这类的债券投资之上,我们比较在WPPSS的一亿四千万期末投资成本与同样金额的股权投资,前者可产生二千三百万的税后盈余(透过支付利息费用)且都是现金,只有少数企业每年可赚得16.3%的税后资本报酬率,就算有其股票价格也高得吓人,以一般平均购并交易来说,一家无财务杠杆每年可赚得二千三百万的税后盈余(等于要税前要赚四千五百万)的公司,大约要价二亿五到三亿美元(有时还更高),当然对于那种我们了解且特别偏爱的公司,或许真的下得了手,但那还是等于我们购买WPPSS价钱的两倍。
然而在WPPSS这个Case,我们仍然认为存在有在一、二年内一文不值的些许潜在风险,同时可能也会有暂时付不出利息的风险存在,更重要的是我们所持有二亿美金面值(大约比我们持有成本高出48%)的债券。当然获利具有上限也是一大缺点,但各位必须了解,大部份的事业投资除非持续投入大量的资金,事实上所谓的获利上限的空间极为有限,这是因为大部份的企业无法有效地提高其股东权益报酬率-即使是原先一般认定可自动提高报酬率的高通膨环境也是如此。
让我们对这个把债券当作投资的个案进一步作说明,若你决定将每年12%报酬的债券利息收入继续买入更多的债券,它就好比你投资一些保留盈余继续再投资的一般企业一样,就前者而言,若今天你以一千万投资30年票票面零利率的债券,则三十年后即2015年你约可得到三亿美元,至于后者,若你同样投资一千万,则三十年后一样公司市值可增加至三亿美元,两者在最后一年皆可赚得三千二百万美元。换句话说,我们投资债券就好象把它当成一种特殊的企业投资,它具备有利的特点,也有不利的特点,但我们相信若你以一般投资的角度来看待债券的话,将可避免一些头痛的问题。例如在1946年二十年期AAA级的免税债券其殖利率约1%不到,事实上买进这些债券的投资人等于是投资一家每年赚不到一个百分点的烂企业,若这些投资人有一点商业头脑,面对这样的投资条件,他一定会大笑地摇头走开,当时有一些具有大好前景且每年可赚得税后10%、12%甚至15%的公司,却以帐面价值进行交易,当时能以帐面价值交易的公司大概没有人会怀疑它赚不到1%的报酬率,但当时习惯买卖债券的投资人仍努力地在这样的基准下进行交易,在往后的二十年间,虽然情况没有当初那么夸张,债券投资人持续地以从商业角度来看完全不合理的条件,签下长达二、三十年的约定,(在至今我个人认为最佳的投资教材- 由葛拉罕所写的the intelligent investor书中最后一段提到,最佳的投资是以商业角度来看的投资)
我们必须再次强调投资WPPSS一定具有相当风险,且很难加以具体衡量,但Charlie跟我一生若有五十次类似的投资机会,我想我们最后结算的成绩应该不赖,但我想我们一年大概遇不到五次以上相同的机会,虽然长期累积下来的成绩铁定会不错,但也难保有一年的结果会很惨(那也是为什么前面所有的句子开头不是Charlie跟我或是我们的原因) 。
大部份的经理人没有太大的动机去作那些-聪明但有时可能会变成白痴的决策,他们个人的得失利弊太明确不过了,若一个很棒的点子真的成功,上头可能拍拍他的肩膀以示鼓励,但万一要是失败,却可能要卷铺盖走路(依照老方法而失败是一条可行之路,就一整个团体而言,旅鼠可能身负臭名,但却没有一只单独的旅鼠会受到责难) ,但在波克夏却不同,拥有47%的股权,Charlie跟我不怕被炒鱿鱼,我们是以老板而非伙计的身份支领报酬,所以我们把波克夏的钱当作自己的钱一样看待,这常使得我们在投资行为与管理风格上不遵循老路。
我们不默守成规的作法表现在我们将保险事业的资金集中投资之上(包括WPPSS债券投资) ,而这种作法之有当像我们一样具备特别雄厚的财务实力方能成功,对其它保险公司来说,相同程度的集中持股可能完完全全不适当,因为它们的资金实力可能无法承受任何重大错误的发生,不管那个投资机会基于或然率的分析看起来多么吸引人都一样。以我们的财务实力我们可以买下少数一大笔的我们想要买且用合理的价格投资的股票(Bill Rose形容过度分散投资的麻烦,若你拥有四十位妻妾,你一定没有办法对每一个女人认识透彻,长期下来我们集中持股的政策终会显现出它的优势,虽然多少会受到规模太大的拖累,而就算某一年度它们表现得特别糟,至少你还能够庆幸我们投入的资金比各位还多。
我们在WPPSS的债券投资分几个不同时点与价格买进,若我们决定要调节有关部份,可能要在变动结束后许久才会知会各位,(在你看到这篇年报时,我们可能已卖到或加码相关部位) ,由于股票的买卖是属于竞争激烈的零和游戏,所以即使是因此加入一点竞争到任何一方,也会大大影响我们的获利,所以我们买进WPPSS的债券可以作为最佳范例,从1983年十月到1984年六月间,我们试着买进所有第一、二、三期的债券,但到最后我们只买到所有流通在外数量的百分之三,如果我们在碰到一个头脑清楚的投资人,知道我们要吃货而跟着进场,结果可能是我们以更高的价格买到更少的债券,(随便一个跟班可能要让我们多花五百万美金)基于这项理由,我们并不透露我们在股票市场上的进出,不论是对媒体,或是对股东,甚至对任何人,除非法令上特别要求。
最后我们对WPPSS的债券的最后心得是大部份情况下,我们不喜爱购买长期的债券,事实上近几年来也很少买进,那是因为债券就像美元一样稳固,而我们对于美元长期的前景看淡,我们相信高通货膨胀摆在眼前,虽然我们无法预测真正的数字,而且不排除完全失控的可能性。这听起来不大可能会发生,考量到目前通膨已有下降的趋势,但我们认为以目前的财政政策(特别是预算赤字)相当危险且很难加以改善(到目前为止两党的政治人物多听从Charlie Brown的建议,没有什么问题是无法加以控制的)但若不能加以改善,高通膨或许暂时不再发生(但却无法完全摆脱) ,而且一旦成形,可能会加快速度向上飙涨。其实投资股票或债券并无太多分别,当通膨维持在5%-10%之间,但在高通膨时代可就完全不是那么一回事了,在那种情况下,投资股票组合在实质上将会蒙受重大损失,但已流通在外的债券却可能更惨,所以我们认为所有目前流通在外的债券组合事实上隐含着极大的风险,所以我们对于债券投资特别谨慎,只有当某项债券比起其它投资机会明显有利时我们才会考虑,而事实上这种情况少之又少。


?一般公司都会跟股东报告股利政策,但通常不会详加解释,有的公司会说我们的目标时发放40%-50%的盈余,同时以消费者物价指数增加的比率发放股利,就这样而已,没有任何分析解释为何这类的政策会对股东有利,然而资金的配置对于企业与投资管理来说是相当重要的一环,因此我们认为经理人与所有权人应该要好好想想在什么情况下,将盈余保留或加以分配会是对股东最有利。
首先要了解的是,并非所有的盈余都会产生同样的成果,在许多企业尤其是那些资本密集(资产/获利比例高)的公司,通膨往往使得帐面盈余变成人为的假象,这种受限制的盈余往往无法被当作真正的股利来发放而必须加以保留再投资以维持原有的经济实质,万一要是勉强发放,将会使得公司在以下几方面失去竞争力: (1)维持原有销售数量的能力(2)维持其长期竞争优势(3)维持其原有财务实力,所以不论其股利发放比率是如何保守,一家公司要是常此以往将会使得其注定面临淘汰,除非你一再抑注更多资金。
对公司老板来说受限制的盈余也并非毫无价值,但它们的折现值通常少得可怜,事实上企业又非用它们不可,不管它们可产生的经济效益有多差,(这种不管前景多么不乐观一律保留的情况,在十年前由Consolidated Edison无意间所提出而后令人难以置信的广泛流传着,在当时一项惩罚性的规范政策是使得公司的股价以远低于帐面价值的价格交易的主要原因,有时甚至以25%的帐面值交易,亦即当每一块钱的盈余被予以保留再投资,市场预期其将来所可能产生的经济效益只有25分钱,讽刺的是尽管这种由金变成铜的现象一再发生,大部份的盈余还是持续的被保留下来再投资。在此同时,在纽约都会区的建筑工地逐渐树起了企业的标语写到:「我们还要继续挖下去吗?」
对于受限制的盈余我不再多谈,让我们将话题转到更有价值的不受限制的部份,所谓不受限制的盈余顾名思义可以加以保留,也可以予以分配,我们认为分配与否主要取决于管理当局判断何者对公司股东较为有利,当然这项原则并未广为大家所接受,基于某些理由管理当局往往偏好将盈余予以保留以扩大个人的企业版图,同时使公司的财务更为优渥,但我们仍然相信将盈余保留只有一个理由,亦即所保留的每一块钱能发挥更有的效益,且必需要有过去的成绩左证或是对未来有精譬的分析,确定要能够产生大于一般股东自行运用所生的效益。具体而言,假设有一位股东持有一种10%无风险永久债券,这种债券有一个特色,那就是投资人每年有权可选择领取10%的债息或将此10%继续买进同类型的债券,假设其中有一年当时长期无分险的殖利率为是5%,则投资人应当不会笨到选择领取现金而会将之继续买进同类型的债券,因为后者能够产生更高的价值,事实上若他真得需要现金的话,他大可以在买进债券后在市场上以更高的价格拋售变现,换句话说若市场上的投资人够聪明的话,是没有人会选择直接领取现金债息的。相反的若当时市场的殖利率是15%,则情况将完全相反,没有人会笨到要去投资10%的债券,即使他手上的闲钱真得太多,他也会先选择领取现金之后再到市场上以较低的价格买进相同的债券。
同样的道理也可以运用在股东思考公司的盈余是否应该发放的问题之上,当然这时候的分析可能较为困难且容易出错,因为再投资所能赚得的报酬率不像债券那个case是白纸黑字的数字,反而可能会变动不一,股东必须去判断在可见的未来其平均的报酬率是多少,而一旦数字订下来的话,之后的分析就简单多了,若预期报酬率高便可以再投资,反之则应要求加以分配。许多企业的经理人很理智地运用上述标准对待旗下子公司,但到了自己所掌管的母公司可就完全不是那么一回事了,他们很少会站在股东的立场为大家想,这种类似精神分裂症的经理人,一面要求每年只能产生5%报酬率的子公司甲将资金分配回母公司,然后转投资到每年可产生15%报酬率的子公司乙,这时他从不会忘记以前在商学院所学到的校训,但若母公司本身预期的报酬率只有5%(市场上的平均报酬率是10%),他顶多只会依循公司从前或同业平均的现金股利发放率来做而已,当他要求旗下子公司提出报告对其保留盈余的比例作出解释的同时,他却从来不会想到要对他公司背后的股东提出任何说明。
在判断是否应将盈余保留在公司,股东不应该只是单纯比较增加的资本所能增加的边际盈余,因为这种关系会被核心事业的现况所扭曲,在高通膨的时代,某些具特殊竞争力的核心事业能够运用少量的资金创造极高的报酬率(如同去年我们曾提过的商誉) ,除非是经历销售量的钜幅成长,否则一家好的企业定义上应该是指那些可以产生大量现金的公司,相对的如果一家公司将本来的资金投入低报酬的事业,那么即使它将增加的资本投入较高报酬的新事业,表面上看起来是不错,但实际上却不怎么样,就好比在高尔夫球配对赛中,虽然大部份的业余选手成绩一蹋胡涂,但团体比赛只取最好的成绩却由于部份职业选手的精湛球技而显得出色。许多表面上持续缴出好绩效的公司事实上把大部份的资金投注在不具竞争力的事业之上。只是前者掩盖住后者惨不忍睹(通常是用高价购并平庸的企业)的失败,而经营阶层也一再强调他们从前一次挫败所学到的经验,但同时马上物色下一次失败的机会。这种情况下,股东们最好把荷包看紧,只留下必要的资金以扩充高报酬的事业,剩下的部份要嘛就发还给股东,要嘛就用来买回库藏股(一种暨可以增加股东权益,又可以避免公司乱搞的好方法) 。
以上的讨论并不是指说公司的股利要随着每季盈余或投资机会的些微差异便要跟着变来变去,上市公司的股东一般偏好公司有一贯稳定的股利政策,因此股利的发放应该要能够反应公司长期的盈余预期,因为公司的前景通常不会常常变化,股利政策也应该如此,但长期而言公司经营阶层应该要确保留下的每一块钱盈余发挥效用,若一旦发现盈余保留下来是错的,那么同样也代表现有经营阶层留下来是错的。
现在让我们回过头来检视波克夏本身的股利政策,过去记录显示波克夏的保留盈余可赚得较市场更高的报酬率,亦即每保留一块钱盈余可创造大于一块钱的价值,在这种情况下,任何发放股利的动作可能都不利于所有波克夏的大小股东。事实上,以我们过去刚开始经营事业的经验显示,在公司的草创初期发放大量的现金股利并不是一件好的事情,当时Charlie跟我掌控三家企业-波克夏、多元零售与蓝筹邮票公司(现在已合并为一家公司) ,蓝筹邮票公司只发放一点股利而其余两家皆未发放,相反的若当时我们把所赚的钱统统发掉,我们现在可能赚不到什么钱,甚至连一点资本也没有,这三家公司当初各自靠一种事业起家(1) 波克夏的纺织(2) 多元零售的百货公司(3) 蓝筹邮票的邮票买卖,这些基础事业(特别要提到的是,那些我跟Charlie再三斟酌敲定的一个形容词)目前已(1)幸存下来但赚不到什么钱(2)规模萎缩并发生大幅亏损(3)只剩当初入主时,5%的营业额。所以只有将资金投入到更好的事业,我们才能克服先天上的劣势(就好象是在补救年轻时的荒诞)很明显的,多角化是对的。
我们将持续多角化并支持现有事业的成长,虽然我们一再强调,这些努力的报酬铁定比过去的成绩逊色,但只要被保留下来的每一块钱能够创造更大的利益,我们便会持续的这样做,而一旦我们评估留下的盈余无法达到前述的标准,我们一定会把所有多余的钱发还给股东,当然会同时权衡过去的记录与未来的前景,当然单一年度的变化颇大,基本上我们会以五年为期来作判断。
我们现今的计划是用保留的盈余来扩充保险事业,我们大部份的竞争对手财务状况比我们差而不愿大幅的扩充,但此刻正值保费收入大幅成长之际,比起1983年的50亿,预计1985年将成长至150亿,这正是我们大捞一笔的难得良机,当然没有什么事百分之百确定的。


?又到了每年我刊登小广告的时候了,去年John Loomis我们一位特别有心的股东,跟我们提到一家完全符合我们标准的公司,我们马上加以锁定,只可惜最后因为一项无解的问题而功亏一篑,以下是跟去年一模一样的广告:
(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有五百万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)
我们不会进行敌意购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。我们欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听,对于那些好的公司与好的经营阶层,我们可以提供一个好的归属。(1984)


?今年破记录的有97.2%的有效股权参与1984年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约三百多万美元捐出的款项分配给1,519家慈善机构,股东会的资料包含一个可以让你表达对这项计划的意见(例如应否继续、每一股应捐赠多少等等)你可能会有兴趣知道事实上在此之前从未有一家公司是以股东的立场来决定公司捐款的去向,经理人在信任资本主义的同时,好象不太相信资本家。
我们建议新股东赶快阅读相关信息,若你也想参加的话,我们强烈建议你赶快把股份从经纪人那儿改登记于自己的名下。


?波克夏的股东年会预计于1985年五月二十一在奥玛哈举行,我希望各位届时都能参加,大部份的股东年会都是在浪费股东与经营阶层的时间,有时是因为经营阶层不愿深入讨论公司的实质面,有时是因为有些股东只顾自己出锋头而未真正关心公司的事务,本来应该是经营事业的讨论会最后往往变成一场闹剧(这是件再划算不过的主意,只要买进一股,你就可以让一大群人坐着听你高谈阔论) ,最后往往是劣币驱逐良币,使得真正关心公司的股东避而远之,剩下一堆爱现的小丑。
波克夏的股东年会却完全不是那么一回事,虽然与会的股东一年比一年多,但至今我们却很少遇到什么蠢问题或是以自我为中心的言论,相反的,大家提出的都是一些有见地的商业问题,正因为大家开会的目的便是为此,因此不管要花多少时间我跟Charlie很乐意为大家解答这类的问题,(然而很抱歉我们无法在其它的时候用书面或电话回答问题,因为以一家拥有三千名股东的公司,若一一回答的话实在是太没有效率了) ,而我们惟一无法回答的商业问题是正直要花多少代价去证明,尤其是我们在股票市场上的进出。
最后我通常要花一点时间来吹嘘我们公司的管理干部有多好,欢迎来参加年会,你就晓得为什么了,外县市来的可以考虑到Nebraska家具店逛逛,若你决定买些东西,你会发现你所省下的钱足够支付你这趟的旅费,相信我你一定会觉得不虚此行的。


?期后事项,三月十八在报告付梓的一周之后,我们协议以每股172.5美金买进三百万股资本城广拨Capital Cities Communications,其中有一项附带要件是资本城必须要能够成功买下ABC美国广播公司,否则合约无效,在前几年的年度我们一再对资本城的领导阶层-包括Tom Murphy 与Dan Burke表示推崇,原因很简单,因为他们不管在能力与人格方面,皆是一时之选,明年的年报我将会详加说明这项投资案的始末。

一九八五年


各位可能还记得去年年报最后提到的那个爆炸性消息,平时表面上虽然没有什么动作,但我们的经验显示偶尔也会有一些大卡司出现,这种精心设计的企业策略终于在1985年有了结果,在今年报告的后半部将会讨论到(a)我们在资本城/ABC的重大投资部位(b)我们对Scott&Fetzer的购并(c)我们与消防人员保险基金的合约(d)我们卖出在通用食品的部位。

去年波克夏的净值约增加了六亿一千万美金,约相当于增加了48.2%,这比率就好比哈雷慧星造访一般,在我这辈子中再也看不到了,二十一年来我们的净值从19.46增加到1,643.71约为23.2%年复合成长率,这又是一项不可能再重现的比率。

有两个因素让这种比率在未来难以持续,一种因素属于暂时性-即与过去二十年相较,现在股市中缺乏合适的投资机会,如今我们已无法为我们的保险事业投资组合找到价值低估的股票,这种情况与十年前有180度的转变,当时惟一的问题是该挑那一个便宜货。市场的转变也对我们现有的投资组合产生不利的影响,在1974年的年报中,我可以说我们认为在投资组合中有几支重要个股有大幅成长的潜力,但现在我们说不出口,虽然我们保险公司的主要投资组合中,有许多公司如同过去一样拥有优秀经营团队也极具竞争优势,但目前市场上的股价已充份反应这项特点,这代表今后我们保险公司的投资绩效再也无法像过去那样优异。
    第二项负面因素更显而易见的是我们的规模,目前我们在股票投入的资金是十年前的20倍,而市场的铁则是成长终将拖累竞争的优势,看看那些高报酬率的公司,一旦当他们的资本额超过十亿美金,没有一家在往后的十年能够靠再投资维持20%以上的报酬率,而仅能依赖大量配息或买回自家股份来维持,虽然前者能为股东带来更大的利益,但公司就是无法找到理想的投资机会。

而我们的问题就跟他们一样,去年我告诉各位在往后十年我们大约要赚到39亿美金,才能有15%的成长,今年同样的门槛提高到57亿美金(根据统记:扣除石油公司不算,只有15家公司在过去十年能够赚到57亿)
    我跟Charlie-经营波克夏事业的合伙人,对于波克夏能够保持比一般美国企业更高的获利能力持乐观的态度,而只要获利持续身为股东的你也能保证因此受惠,(1)我们不必去担心每季或每年的帐面获利数字,相反地只要将注意力集中在长远的价值上即可(2)我们可以将事业版图扩大到任何有利可图的产业之上,而完全不受经验、组织或观念所限(3)我们喜爱我们的工作,这些都是关键因素,但即便如此我们仍必须要大赚一笔(比过去达到23.2%还要更多)才有办法使我们的平均报酬率维持15%
    另外我还必须特别提到一项投资项目,是与最近购买本公司股票的投资人有密切相关的,过去一直以来,波克夏的股票价格约略低于内含价值,维持在这样的水准,投资人可以确定(只要折价的幅度不再继续扩大)其个人的投资经验与该公司本身的表现维持一致,但到了最近,这种折价的状况不再,甚至有时还会发生溢价,折价情况的消失代表着波克夏的市值增加的幅度高于内含价值增长的速度(虽然后者的表现也不错),当然这对于在此现象发生前便持有股份的人算是好消息,但对于新进者或即将加入者却是不利的,而若想要使后者的投资经验与公司的表现一致,则这种溢价现象便必需一直维持,然而管理当局无法控制股价,当然他可对外公布政策与情况,促使市场参与者的行为理性一点,而我个人偏好(可能你也猜得到)即期望公司股价的表现尽量与其企业本身价值接近,惟有维持这种关系,所有公司的股东在其拥有所有权期间皆能与公司共存共荣,股价剧幅的波动并无法使整体的股东受惠,到头来所有股东的获利总和必定与公司的获利一致,但公司的股价长时间偏离内含价值(不管是高估或低估)都将使得企业的获利不平均的分配到各个股东之间,而其结果好坏完全取决于每个股东本身有多幸运、或是聪明愚笨,长久以来,波克夏本身的市场价值与内含价值一直存在着一种稳定的关系,这是在所有我熟悉的上市公司中少见的,这都要归功于所有波克夏的股东,因为大家都很理性、专注、以投资为导向,所以波克夏的股价一直很合理,这不凡的结果是靠一群不凡的股东来完成,几乎我们所有的股东都是个人而非法人机构,没有一家上市公司能够像我们一样。
    或许你会认为法人机构,拥有高薪的职员与经验丰富的专业人员会成为金融市场稳定与理性的力量,那你就大错特错了,那些法人持股比重较重且持续受关注的的股票,其价格通常都不合理。

我的老师葛拉罕四十年前曾讲过一个故事说明为何专业的投资人员会是如此,一个老石油开发商蒙主宠召,在天堂的门口遇到了圣彼得,圣彼得告诉他一个好消息跟一个坏消息,好消息是他有资格进入天堂,但坏消息却是天堂里已没有位置可以容纳额外的石油开发商,老石油开发商想了一下,跟圣彼得说只要让他跟现有住户讲一句话就好,圣彼得觉得没什么大碍就答应了,只见老石油开发商对内大喊:「地狱里发现石油了」,不一会儿,只见天堂的门打开,所有的石油开发商争先恐后地往地狱奔去,圣彼得大开眼界地对老开发商说:「厉害!厉害!现在你可以进去了」,但只见老开发商顿了一下后,说到:「不!我还是跟他们一起去比较妥当,传言有可能是真的」

下表显示波克夏帐列盈余的主要来源,这些数字加上一些更详细的各部门信息是Charlie跟我注意的重点,反而我们不认为合并的总数对于管理与评量波克夏有什么帮助,事实上我们内部本身从来不会用到。

部门信息对于想要了解一家多角化公司的投资人来说同等重要,企业经理人在购并一家公司时通常也会坚持这一点,但最近这几年对于要决定买进卖出股权的投资人却要不到这样的信息,相反的当股东想要了解公司的经营情况而跟管理阶层要这样的信息时,他们通常以可能危害公司利益来响应,直到最后证管会下令公司须揭露才心甘情愿一五一十的报告出来,这种态度的转变让我想起Al Capone的比喻:拿着一只枪好好的说的效果,会比光是好好的说要好的多。
下表商誉的摊销以单一字段另行列示(理由详我1983年的附录),


 
 
 
 
1985
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
 
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Percent
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
100.0%
 
(44,230)
 
(44,230)
 
 
 
(23,569)
 
 
 

 
 
100.0%
 
95,217
 
95,217
 
 
 
79,716
 
 
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
100.0%
 
(2,395)
 
(2,395)
 
 
 
(1,324)
 
 
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
100.0%
 
270
 
270
 
 
 
134
 
 
 

Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
100.0%
 
12,686
 
12,686
 
 
 
5,181
 
 
 

See's Candies
 
100.0%
 
28,989
 
28,989
 
 
 
14,558
 
 
 

Buffalio Evening News
 
100.0%
 
29,921
 
29,921
 
 
 
14,580
 
 
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
100.0%
 
5,763
 
5,763
 
 
 
2,813
 
 
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
100.0%
 
9,500
 
9,500
 
 
 
4,191
 
 
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
100.0%
 
2,622
 
2,622
 
 
 
4,016
 
 
 

Presion Steel
 
100.0%
 
3,896
 
3,896
 
 
 
1,477
 
28.4%
 

Amortization of Goodwill
 
 
 
(1,475)
 
(1,475)
 
 
 
(1,475)
 
 
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
(14,415)
 
(14,415)
 
 
 
(7,288)
 
 
 

Shareholder's Contribution
 
 
 
(4,006)
 
(4,006)
 
 
 
(2,164)
 
 
 

Other
 
 
 
3,106
 
3,106
 
 
 
2,102
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
125,449
 
125,449
 
 
 
92,948
 
25.9%
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
 
 
487,907
 
109,272
 
 
 
342,867
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
613,356
 
234,721
 
 
 
435,815
 
-85.7%
 

?1985年出售证券的收益特别高,但事实上不代表今年就是丰收的一年(虽然事实上的确是),出售证券收益就好象大学生的毕业典礼一样,四年来所学的知识在一朝正式被认可,而事实上在当天你可能一点长进都没有,我们可能持有一支股票长达十年之久,而在这期间其价值与股价可能以稳定的步调增长,可是在我们真正出售的那一年其价值可能一点也没变,或甚至减少,但所有的帐面利益却全反应在出售的那一年,(但是如果这支股票是由我们的保险子公司持有,其市价的变东将会按期反应在帐面之上) ,总而言之,帐列出售损益是没有什么意义的,根本无法反应我们在当年度的实际表现。
1985年大部份出售证券的收益约三亿四千万美金是缘于我们出售通用食品的股票,我们从1980年开始便持有大部份个股,我们当初以远低于我们认为合理的每股企业价值的价位买进,年复一年,Jim与Phil等管理阶层的优异表现大幅提升该公司的价值,一直到去年秋天,Philip Morris对该公司提出购并的要求,使其价值显现出来,我们因四项因素而大大受惠(1)便宜的买进价格(2)一家优秀的公司(3)一群能干且注重股东权益的管理阶层(4)愿意出高价的买主,而最后一项因素是这项获利能够一举浮现的惟一原因,但我们却认为前三项才是能为波克夏股东创造最大利益的原因。在选择股票时,我们专注于如何漂亮的买进,而全不考虑出售的可能性。
今年我们又再度收到被投资公司的特别股利,这次是华盛顿邮报以及通用食品,(通用的这笔交易很明显地是发生在Philip Morris提出并购要求之前) ,这种特别股利的发生系由于公司在买回我们手中的股份的同时也从其它股东那里买回等比例的股份,合约中并明订我们在该公司所占的股权比例在买卖交易的前后维持不变,这类交易被IRS认定为类似股利的发放,因为身为一位股东即使在收到现金之后,在该公司的股权比例仍维持不变。这对我们来说较为有利,因为美国税法规定法人纳税义务人(不像个人) ,对于股利的所得税远低于长期投资的资本利得税(而其中的差异将会再扩大,若国会通过的法案正式成为法律:相关条款规定企业实现的资本利得所适用税率与一般所得相同) ,然而会计原则对于这类交易在财务报表上应如何处理却无统一看法,为与去年作法一致,在财务上我们仍将之视为资本利得。
虽然我们不刻意促成这类交易案,但当管理当局自动提出这种想法时,我们通常站在支持的立场,虽然每次我们都觉得选择不卖的股东(当然大家都有权利以我们收到的价格出售)将因公司以低于内含价值的价格买回而受惠,但税负上的优惠以及我们寄望与管理阶层维持合作的态度以增进所有股东权益,使得我们不得不接受卖回股份,但只有在我们的持股比例未减损的大原则之下进行。


?通常讲到这里接下来要谈的是,我们经营的主要事业,在开始之前,先看看我们所属事业的一项失败,我们的副主席Charlie Munger,总是强调研究事业与人生各方面的失败要比研究成功要重要的多,他这样的精神正如有人说:「我总是想要知道以后我会怎么死,然后尽量去避免这件事发生。」而你可能也看得出,我们两个可说是合作无间,他喜欢研究错误,而我总是能够确保他有足够的题材去作研究,尤其是在纺织与保险事业方面。
关闭纺织事业-七月时我们决定关闭我们在纺织事业的营运,而到年底之前这项令人不太愉快的工作也大致告一段落,而回顾纺织产业的历史深具启发性。
当巴菲特合伙事业(当时由我本人担任该合伙事业的执行合伙人)在二十一年前买下波克夏纺织公司的控制权时,公司的帐面价值约为二仟二百万美元,全部集中在纺织事业,然而当时由于公司无法赚得与帐面价值相称的报酬,其内含价值却远低于此数,事实上,在此之前九年,(即波克夏与海瑟威两家合并经营期间)合计总营收达五亿多美元,却发生一仟万美金的亏损,虽然时有获利,但总是进一步、退两步。
在我们买下该公司的当时,南方的纺织工厂由于不具工会组织而被公认为较具竞争优势,大部份北方的工厂皆已结束营运,而当时许多人认为我们也应该将该公司清算。然而我们觉得公司若能有一位长期稳定的管理者,营运将可改善,所以当时我们马上选中Ken Chase接手,有关这点我们到是作对了,Ken跟后来接替他的Garry作得非常好,一点也不输给我们其它获利更高的事业经营者。
在1967年初我们利用纺织事业产生的大量现金进入保险事业买下National Indemnity,一部份资金来自于盈余,一部份则来自于减少纺织事业的存货、应收与固定资产的投资,这次撤退的决策事后证明完全正确,即使由于Ken的管理营运大为改善,但纺织事业从未赚到什么钱,即使是在景气高峰的时候。波克夏后来持续多角化,始得纺织业的不良对于公司整体的影响越来越轻微,而我们之所以继续来在纺织业的原因,我早在1978年便曾提过(后来也曾陆续提到)
(1)该公司为当地非常重要的雇主
(2)管理当局坦诚面对困境并努力解决问题
(3)劳工体认困境并极力配合
(4)尚能产生稳定现金收入
我后来还说只要这些情况持续不变(我们也预期不会变),即使有更多更好的投资机会,我们仍会支持纺织事业坚持下去。
但事实证明第四点是错的,虽然隔年1979年的获利状况还不错,但之后却耗用大量的资金,直到1985年中情况变得再明显不过,若我们能够找到合适的买主,即使贱价出售我们也不愿意看到该事业被清算,但我们清楚这点,表示别人更清楚,没有人会有兴趣。
我们不会因为想要将企业的获利数字增加一个百分点,便结束比较不赚钱的事业,但同时我们也觉得只因公司非常赚钱便无条件去支持一项完全不具前景的投资的作法不太妥当,亚当 史密斯一定不赞同我第一项的看法,而卡尔 马克斯却又会反对我第二项见解,而采行中庸之道是惟一能让我感到安心的作法。
我必须还要再强调一次,Ken与Garry两个人都极具干劲与想象力,努力地想要使我们的纺织事业经营成功,为了使公司持续稳定获利,他们重新规划产品线、生产流程与通路商配置,同时也大手笔并购了同业Waumbec,期望能够发挥合并综效(一个企业合并广泛应用的名词,用来解释一些想不出有其它任何意义的购并案) ,但到结果最后一点用都没有,而这一切都因我没有及早结束这项事业,最近商业周刊有一篇文章提到1980年以来一共有250家纺织业结束营运,这些工厂的老板所收到的所有信息我全都明了,只是他们能够更客观地看待事情,我忽略了Comte的建议:「智者应该是心灵的仆人,而非它的奴隶」,相信你所相信的。
国内的纺织业所面临的是全球产能过剩的商品化产品的激烈竞争,我们所面临的问题主要归因于直接或者是间接来自于国外低劳力成本的竞争。但关厂绝对不是本国劳工的错,事实上比起美国其它产业的劳工来说,纺织业的员工薪资水准低得可怜,在劳资协议时,工会的干部与成员充份体认到整个产业所面临的困境,从未作出不合理的调薪要求或不符生产效益的诉求,相反地,大家都努力的想要维持竞争力,而即使到了公司最后清算的时刻,他们仍极力配合,而讽刺的是,要是工会表现的过份一点,使我们早一点体认到这行不具前景而立克关厂,我们的损失可能会少一点。
长年以来,我们一再面临投入大量的资本支出以降低变动成本的抉择,每次提出的企划案看起来都稳赚不赔,以标准的投资报酬率来看,甚至比起我们高获利的糖果与新闻事业还好的许多,但这预期的报酬最后都证明只是一种幻象,因为我们许多竞争者,不管是国内或者是国外,全都勇于投入相同的资本支出,使得降低的成本被迫全数反应在售价之上,在个别公司看来,每家公司的资本支出计划看起来都再合理不过,在若整体观之,其效益完全被抵销掉而变得很不合理,就好比每个去看游行队伍的观众,以为自己只要蹎一蹎脚就可以看得更清楚一样,每多投入一回合,所有的竞争者投注的金额就越高,但投资报酬却一点也不见起色。
结果是我们面对一个悲惨的抉择,大笔的资本支出虽然可以令我们的纺织事业得以存活,但其相对的投资报酬却是少得可怜,每次投入一笔资金,依然还是要面对国外低成本的强力竞争,若不再继续投资,将使我们更不具竞争力,即使是与国内同业相比,我总觉得自己就好象伍迪爱伦在他某一部电影中所形容的:「比起历史上的任何一刻,此时人类面临抉择的路口,一条通往绝望的深渊,而另一条则通往毁灭,请大家一起祈祷让我们有足够的智能去作正确的决定」
想要对在商品化产业是否应继续投资作决定,看看Burlington工业-二十年来为美国最大的纺织公司,1964年该公司的营业额约为十二亿美元(波克夏则约五千万),他们在行销与生产上拥有我们无法比拟的优势,当然盈余数字也比我们要好看得多,当然它的股价为60块(波克夏则约13块) 。之后Burlington决定固守纺织本业,直到1985年营业额达二十八亿美金,在此二十年间该公司总计投入约三十亿美金的资本支出,这数字远比其它同业高出许多,换算每股约为二百元,而我相信大部份的花费用于降低成本与扩张之上,以该公司决定固守本业的决定之上,这种投资决策绝对是合理的。
但尽管如此,比起二十年前该公司现在的实际销售数字与投资报酬却是大不如前,该公司现在的股价是34元,若考虑1965年每二股配一股计算在内,大约略高于当年的60元,而在此同时,消费者物价指数却早已增加三倍,因此每股大约仅剩下当初三分之一的购买力,虽然每年有固定的盈余发放,但它的购买力一样受到严重的减损。
这个对股东来说最悲惨的结局,说明了花费大量人力物力在错误的产业所可能导致的后果,这种情况有如山谬杰克森的那匹马,一只能数到十的马是只了不起的马,却不是了不起的数学家,同样的一家能够合理运用资金的纺织公司是一家了不起的纺织公司,但却不是什么了不起的企业。
从个人的经验与观察得到一个结论,那就是一项优异的记录背后(从投资报酬率的角度来衡量)你划的是一条怎样的船更胜于你怎样去划(虽然不管一家公司好或坏,努力与才能也很重要) ,几年前我曾说当一个以管理著名的专家遇到一家不具前景的公司时,通常是后者会占上风,如今我的看法一点也不变,当你遇到一艘总是会漏水的破船,与其不断白费力气去补破洞,还不如把精力放在如何换条好船之上。


?有关我们在纺织业投资的”辉煌历史” 还有一段后话,有些投资人在买卖股票时把帐面价值看得很重(就像早期我的作风一样),也有些经济学者相信重置价值在计算一家公司的股价时极为重要,关于这两种说法在经过拍卖纺织机器设备后,让我好好地上了一课,卖掉的设备(包括部份先前已处分的)满满一工厂全为堪用品,原始成本为一仟三百万美金(包括近几年投入的二百万) ,经过加速摊提折旧后,帐面价值八十六万,虽然没有人会笨到再继续投资,但要买一套全新的设备也要花三、四千万美金。但你知道吗?整个机器处分只收到十六万,扣除掉处份所耗费的成本,最后一毛也不剩,我们在几年前买五千块一只的纺纱开价五十元还没人要,最后以几近下脚价格的二十六块卖掉,连付搬运的工资都不够。
想想看二家水牛城报摊或一家喜斯糖果店铺所能发挥的经济价值还比它高,而这些有形资产在几年之前,不同的经济环境之下,却能一口气雇用上千个人。


?记得十二岁时我和爷爷一起住了大概有四个月,那时他开了一家杂货店,且用心写了一本书,每晚还指定几页要我读,书名不盖你,叫「如何经营一家杂货店与我从钓鱼上学到的一些事」,我爷爷以为所有人对于这两件事一定都会感兴趣,且全世界一定都会看重他的想法,看完下面这一段后,你一定会觉得我的写作风格与内容(也包含个性)完全承袭了我爷爷。
我把Nebraska家具店、喜斯糖果店与水牛城报纸摆在一起谈是因为我认为这几家企业的竞争优势、弱点与产业前景跟我一年前报告的一样,一点都没有改变,简短的叙述不代表它们占我们公司的重要性有丝毫的减损,1985年合计税前净利为七千二百万美元,在十五年前还未买下它们之前,此数字为八百万美元,从八百万到七千二百万,看起来好象很惊人(事实上也是) ,但你千万不要以来本来就是这样,首先你必须确定基期没有被低估,还要考虑所投入的资金,以及增加盈余所需再投入的资金。关于这几点,这三家公司完全经得起考验,第一,十五年前它们相对于其所耗用的资本,所产生的盈余颇为可观,第二,虽然每年增加了六千多万盈余,其额外投入的资本也不过只有四千万美金而已。公司运用少数额外资金便能大幅提高获利能力的原因在于高通膨时代品牌商誉所能发挥的魔力,(我们在1983年报中有详细解释) ,这些公司的特性使得我们可以将他们所赚到的盈余用在别的用途之上,然而一般的美国企业就不是这么一回事,想要大幅提高获利相对地往往也要再投入大量的资金,平均要每投入五块钱每年才能增加一块钱的获利,等于要额外投入三亿美元,才能达到我们这三家公司的获利水准。
当资本报酬率平平,这种大堆头式的赚钱方式跟本没什么了不起,你坐在摇椅上也能轻松达到这样的成绩,好比只要把你存在银行户头里的钱,一样可以赚到加倍的利息,没有人会对这样的成果报以掌声,但通常我们在某位资深主管的退休仪式上歌颂他在任内将公司的盈余数字提高数倍,却一点也不会去看看这些事实上是因为公司每年所累积盈余与复利所产生的效果。当然若那家公司在此期间以有限的资金赚取极高的报酬或是只增加一点资金便创造更多的盈余,则他所得到的掌声是名符其实,但若报酬率平平或只是用更多的资金堆积出来的结果,那么就应该把掌声收回,因为只要把存在银行所赚的8%利息再继续存着,18年后你的利息收入自然加倍。
这种简单的算术问题常常被公司所忽略而损及股东的权益,因为许多公司的奖励计划随随便便大方的犒赏公司主管,例如十年固定价格的认股权,事实上公司的盈余增加有许多只是单纯地因为盈余累积所产生的效果,有一个例子可以用来说明这其间的不合理性,假设你在银行有年利率8%定存十万元交由一位信托人士来保管,由他来决定你每年实际要领多少利息出来,未领出的利息则继续存在银行利滚利,再假设我们伟大的信托人将实领利息的比例定为四分之一,最后让我来看看十年之后你会得到什么,十年后你的户头会有179,084,此外在信托人的精心安排下,你每年所赚的利息会从8,000增加到13,515,实领的利息也从2,000增加到3,378,而最重要的是当每年你的信托人送交的你的年度报告时,你会发现图表中每一项数字都是一飞冲天。
现在让我们再作进一步假设,你与信托人签订的信托合约中有一项附予信托人十年固定价格的认股权的约定,到最后发现你的信托人会从你的口袋中大捞一笔,而且你会发现要是利息负现的比例越低,你付的就会越多。而你不要以为这跟你一点关系都没有,在现实社会中这样的情况比比皆是,这些公司主管只因公司盈余累积而非将公司资金管理得当便大捞一票,十个月我都觉得太长,更何况是长达十年以上。
而事实上,公司主管对于选择权(扣除附认股权可让公司立即取得对价)这档子事具有双重标准,假设是对外发行这样的认股权,其价格一定会高得惊人,当然这种奖励方法有时也会用到那些有才能、对公司真正有贡献的人身上,(事实上,一家公司真正给有杰出表现的人往往给的不够多) ,不过通常只是碰巧,而这种选择权一旦给了,便无法收回,无论这个人之后表现如何都不能取消(只要他老兄继续留在公司),一个庸才从选择权赚到的跟真正的人才一样多,这实在是管理界的李伯大梦最好的去处了。
我忍不住要再提一下之前克来斯勒所给美国政府外部选择权作为部份报酬以请求其为借款担保的案例,当后来这些选择权变得价值不菲时,克来斯勒竭尽所能想要修改条件,声称这比真正应该给政府协助该公司东山再起的报酬多出太多,该公司认为政府所获得与付出不成正比的不满最后甚至演变成全国性的新闻,这种不平之鸣显得有点突兀,因为就我所知,没有一家公司的经理人会对本身在选择权的不劳而获表示过任何异议。讽刺的是,大家一再发表「选择权的实施有其必要,因为如此一来经理人与股东便能同舟一济」的论调,而事实上,两者的船是完全不同,所有股东皆必须负担资金成本,而经理人持有的固定价格选择权却什么也不必承担,股东在期盼公司发达的同时还必须承受公司可能失败的风险,事实上一个你希望能享有认股权的投资计划往往是你不会想要投资的计划,(若有人要免费送我乐透彩券,我一定欣然接受,但若要我买一张则完全免谈) 。
在股利政策方面亦然,凡事对持有选择权的经理人最有利的对股东一定最不利,回到之前的银行存款上头,不领利息对于持有选择权的受托人最有利,相反地,身为委托人应该要倾向把利息全领出来,免得让经理人利用利滚利占你便宜。
虽然有那么多缺点,选择权在某些时后还是很好用,我批评的重点主要是它们被无限制地遭到滥用,这里我有三点要说明:
(1)由于选择权与公司整体的表现惜惜相关,所以理论上它们应该用在负责公司全局的高阶主管身上,部门的主管则应视其负责部份的表现给予奖励,对于打击率高达三成五的球员来说,应该给予大幅的调薪,即使他待的是一支大烂队,相反地,对于打击率一成五的球员,就算他们那一队最后得到冠军也应该请他走路,只有负责全局的人,如总教练才应与球队整体战绩绑在一起
(2)选择权规划应当要非常慎重,除非有特殊原因,应该要把资金成本与保留盈余的影响列入考量,价格也要合理的订定,当公司面临外部购并时,他们一定马上指出市价是如何地不合理无法反应公司实际的价值,但是为何公司要以更低的价格贱卖给公司部份股权给经理人呢?(他们甚至还会说,会尽量以最低的价格将股权卖给内部人,不管公司要负担多少税负)除非在非常特殊的情况,公司不管是将部份股权廉价卖给内部人或外部人,原来的股东权益一定受到损害,最后的结论是选择权的认购价一定要与真实价值相当
(3)我必须强调有一些我非常欣赏且经营绩效更甚于我的经理人,不认同我在固定价格选择权的看法,他们建立了一套具个人管理风格的企业文化,而其中固定价格认股权是他们认为非常有用的一项工具,以他们个人的领导风格与示范并以认股权作为诱因,他们成功地引导部属以股东的心态来想事情,这种风格不多见,但若有我们也必须小心的加以维护,即使这样的作法会破坏公平性与效率,孰谚有云:「东西若没坏,就不必修理」,这总比无可救药的完美主义好得多。
然而在波克夏我们采用的奖励计划系依每个人在其职权范围内的目标达成状况做为奖赏的依据,若喜斯糖果表现的好,则这与新闻事业部门一点关系都没有,反之亦然,而我们在发放奖金时与公司本身股价高低没有任何关连,我们认为表现好的单位,不管波克夏的股价是涨是跌,都应该奖励,同样的即使波克夏的股价飙涨,若员工表现平平也不应该大发奖金,而表现系依据各个公司本身竞争条件与环境列入考量,有时只是运气好搭上顺风车一切平顺,有时只是运气差遇到逆境特别倒霉。即使是在这样的制度下,有时奖励也相当可观,在各个部门中,视状况有人可以领到底薪五倍以上的奖金,以今年为例就有人会领到二百万以上的奖金,而事实上金额并没有上限,与阶级与年资也没有太大关连,若表现得好一个小单位的主管可能比一个大单位的主管领得多的多,只要打击率能超过三成,不管你是二十岁的菜鸟或是四十岁的老将,我们都一样重视。
而很显然的,波克夏各事业的经理人可以利用他们所领到的奖金(或甚至去借钱)到股票市场上买进公司本身的股票,而事实上有许多人确实如此,而且持股比例甚高,与其它股东一样承担风险与资金成本,这些经理人确实与公司站在同一条阵线之上。


?最后让我们回到主要的三项事业
在Nebraska家具店我们最具优势的竞争力在于低成本的营运,并提供客户最有质感的家具,身为全国同类型中规模最大的一家店,即使小镇的经济明显衰退,营收仍创新高,我也很高兴跟各位报告,家具店的负责人B太太虽然高龄92,每天仍以年轻人跟不上的步伐在店里忙碌着,坐在轮椅上,她一个礼拜工作七天,我希望当大家造访Omaha时,能到店礼看看她,相信你会与我一样精神一振。
在喜斯糖果我们与同业竞争对手相比,其单店销售量仍大幅领先,虽然我们广为消费大众所接受认同,整个产业表现并不好,单店糖果销售磅数持续下滑,这使得单位成本提高,而我们却只能稍微调涨价格,如此一来我们的毛利势必受到影响。
在新闻事业方面一样很难增加发行量,虽然广告量略增,但主要来自于夹报部份,ROP 广告(报纸版面上的广告)却减少,前者的利润远比后者低,且竞争较激烈,所幸去年成本控制得宜而家庭订户数表现颇佳。
我们较不担心的是这三家都有优秀的管理阶层,在接手喜斯我们便一直有Chuck掌控大局,选上他是我们作得最对的决策之一,在新闻事业我们也有Stan Lipsey同样是狠角色,他跟我们在一起十七年了,每当我们复予他更多责任,他的才能表现便更上一层楼,在家具店不用说我们则有B太太家族,三代同堂可谓一门豪杰。
能够跟这一群优秀的专业经理人一起共事,我实在感到非常幸运,在专业上我佩服之至,在私人方面则是我的好朋友。


?下表是年报中常见表格的更新,列示保险事业的主要两项数字:


 
 
Yearly Change in
 
 
 
Combined Ratio
 

 
 
Premiums Written
 
 
 
 
 
after Policy-holder Dividends
 

 
 
%
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
%
 
 
 

1972
 
 
 
10.2%
 
 
 
 
 
96.2%
 
 
 

1973
 
 
 
8.0%
 
 
 
 
 
99.2%
 
 
 

1974
 
 
 
6.2%
 
 
 
 
 
105.4%
 
 
 

1975
 
 
 
11.0%
 
 
 
 
 
107.9%
 
 
 

1976
 
 
 
21.9%
 
 
 
 
 
102.4%
 
 
 

1977
 
 
 
19.8%
 
 
 
 
 
97.2%
 
 
 

1978
 
 
 
12.8%
 
 
 
 
 
97.5%
 
 
 

1979
 
 
 
10.3%
 
 
 
 
 
100.6%
 
 
 

1980
 
 
 
6.0%
 
 
 
 
 
103.1%
 
 
 

1981
 
 
 
3.9%
 
 
 
 
 
106.0%
 
 
 

1982
 
 
 
4.4%
 
 
 
 
 
109.7%
 
 
 

1983
 
 
 
4.5%
 
 
 
 
 
111.9%
 
 
 

1984
 
(Rev.)
 
9.2%
 
 
 
 
 
117.9%
 
 
 

1985
 
(Est.)
 
20.9%
 
 
 
 
 
118.0%
 
 
 

?综合比率Combined Ratio代表所有的保险成本(损失加上费用)占保费收入的比率,100以下表示有承保利益,反之100以上则表示有承保损失。
1985年产业整体的数字有点不寻常,保费收入大幅成长,而投保损失则与前几年一样以固定比率成长(约比通货膨胀率高几个百分点) ,结果两项因素加起来竟使得Combined Ratio下降,只是损失不大配合,虽然通膨有趋缓的现象,理赔损失却成长惊人,相较于去年的16%,今年创新高的17%更显得惊人。
意外并不是损失成长的主因,虽然1985年确实有几次相当大的飓风发生,但所造成的损失仅占保费收入的2%,这比例不算异常,而且也不是投保汽车、房屋、员工或其它投保标的出险的爆增。
可能可以解释的原因是去年业界大幅提拨损失准备,就像报告所显示的,这场景有点像检讨会议,保险事业经理人大家一窝蜂地承认前几年损失准备确实提拨不足,而结果修正后的数字严重影响今年的损益。
另外一项更令人困扰的因素是社会或司法通膨成本的增加,保险业者的赔偿能力已成为陪审团判决责任与损害成立与否的重要因素,越来越多人觊谀深口袋,不管保单上是怎么写、不管事实真相为何,也不管以前的判例。这成为保险业预测未来的最不确定的因素,尽管如此,短期间的影响尚属有限,只要保费成长的速度持续,不要发生什么特别大的灾难,明年产业整体的Combined Ratio可望大幅下降。
不过获利改善的情况无法持续太久,主要有两个原因,一是商品化企业只有在价格稳定或供给短缺的情况下才能维持高获利,一是公司必须在景气转佳之前先扩充产能并准备好资金。如同我在1982年年报跟各位报告过的,曾广泛地讨论商品化企业的特点,一般的投保人不太在乎产品的差异而只注意价格,几十年来公会的垄断使得价格居高不下,但这种情况如今已不复见到,在自由市场中保单与其它商品一样地被自由订价,当供给吃紧,价格自然上升,反之就不会。
供给目前在许多险种有些吃紧,虽然保险业不像大部份的行业,所谓的产能只是心态上而非实质的,保险业者可以接下无限量他认为适当的保单,这其间只受到主管当局与公会评比的压力,公司与主管当局在乎的是资本的适足性,越多的资本当然是越好,也代表可以签下更多的保单,在标准的商品化企业,如钢铁或铝业,要增加产能还要一定的前置期间,而在保险业资金却是可以随时取得,因此供给不足的情况可能马上就会消失。这就是目前实际发生的状况,在去年总计有十五家业者大约募集了三十亿的资金,使得他们可以吃下所有可能的生意,而且资金募集的速度越来越快。照这样下去不用多久马上的会面临到杀价竞争的情况,之后获利也会跟着受影响。而这一切都要归疚那些大幅增资的业者(有人一定会批评,就像我们在纺织业一样,资本社会的动态变化,使得所有业者做出那种个别看似合理,但就产业整体而言,弊多于利的结果。
以往年报我曾告诉过大家,波克夏雄厚的资本结构(堪称业界之最)有一天能让我们在保险业拥有独一无二的竞争力,随着市场的紧缩,这一天已到来,去年我们的保费收入在经过许多年的停滞之后,增加三倍以上,波克夏的财务实力(以及过去优异的记录)是我们争取业务最有用的利器。我们正确地预期到大客户对于品质的要求,在他们了解到保单也不过是一张借据,而许多借条在去年皆无法兑现。这些客户最后都被波克夏健全的资本结构吸引上门,而另外有一点是我们没有预期到的发展,那就是还有许多客户是因为我们能够承担钜额的风险而觉得我们与众不同。关于这点,你必须对钜额风险有一些认识,在以往有许多业者都很愿意接下这种保单,但是他们会这样做的原因是透过再保险的安排,业者只要保留一小部份的风险,而将大部份的风险移转给再保业者,想想看例如经理人投保额二千五百万,透过与再保签约,保单发行公司可以只留下头一个一百万损失,超过的部份最高到二千四百万由再保公司负责,照业界的说法,其保险毛额很高,但净额却很少。
在任何的再保安排中,最重要的问题是保费收入要如何来分配,以我们的经理人经营保险为例,保险人必需要有足够的保费来弥补其承担第一个一百万损失的风险,而再保人必需要有足够的保费来弥补其承担一百万到二千五百万损失的风险。一种解决这种难题的方法叫做派翠克-亨利法则:系完全依照过去的经验,换句话说过去再保业者需要多少保费来弥补其所承担的损失。但不幸的是过去的经验因为投保期间过长往往无法完全反映实际的情况,亦即要在许多年之后才能真正知道会发生多少损失,而且最近产业能见度不但越来越差,有时甚至还会误导,亦即法院不管以前判例倾向于给予钜额的赔偿,使得再保业者过去推估的公式与结果相差太远而变成一场大灾难。派翠克-亨利不管用,换成Pogo所说:「未来与过去绝对不同。」
产业的不确定性加上许多经验不足的新进者,使得这几年保险业者偏好维持低水准的保单净额,他们能够吃下比其所能承担的风险要大得多的保单量,这样的作法有时在保险与再保公司整体亏钱的情况下,本身甚至还能获利,(这种结局并不是刻意的,通常保单发行公司对于校高阶的风险所生最后成本的了解的不一定比再保公司多) ,这种不合理的情况尤其会发生在环境变化快且成本高涨的时代,如执行业务不当、经理人保险与产品责任险等,在这些情况下,也难怪保险公司还会积极签发保单,即使保费毛额已相当不合理之时。最明显的例子是在1984年有一家大型的同业,在那一年那家公司一共签下六十亿元的保单,在保留其中的40%约二十五亿后,将剩下的三十五亿转给再保公司,结果保留部份理赔的损失最后只有不到二亿元(算是不错的成绩) ,但是分保出去的部份却使再保业者蒙受了十五亿元的损失,使得保险公司的Combined Ratio不到110,但再保公司却高达140,而这与天然灾害一点关系都没有,完全是业者之间的(但发生的频率却相当高) ,虽然我尚未看到该公司今年的年报,但可想而知这种不平衡的情况一定还继续维持着。已有好几年一些反应较慢的再保业者由于无法对保费作合理的分配,甚至是估计,使得权益因而受损,到最后再保业者的行为有点像马克吐温的猫一样,「一旦被热炉子烫过一次,便不会再去碰任何炉子,即使是冷的炉子也一样」,再保业者在长期的意外险方面有太多不愉快的经验,以至于到最后干脆放弃(有可能是正确地)该项业务,不管投保价格如何诱人,结果使得某些业务的供给量严重短缺。如此一来许多再保客户便着急了,他们不能够再像以前一样,动不动就将上千万的保单转给再保业者,进而也没有能力与财力自行吃下大额的保单,有的业者的承保毛额萎缩到与承保净额相当。
在波克夏我们从来不玩这类的游戏,直到最近这样的作法使我们在某些业务处于不利的竞争地位,不过现在整个局势已改变,我们拥有同业比不上的承保实力,只要我们认为价格合理,我们愿意签下其它大型业者吃不下的保单,例如我们愿意承担一次可能损失一仟万美元的风险,只要价格合理且其风险与我们已承保的风险无太大的相关。同业间连愿意承担前述一半的都不多见,尽管在不久之前,有再保业者当靠山,许多业者甚至愿意吃下十倍以上的保单。1985年我们旗下保险公司National Indemnity在保险杂志大幅刊登广告对外宣传愿意吃下超过百万美金的大额保单,结果总计收到高达六百封的回函,最后约有五千万美金的生意成交(先不要高兴太早,由于属于长期保单,至少鳔要经过五年以上才能确定这次成功的行销也是成功的承保),现在一般的保险经纪人要接高额的保单第一个一定会想到我们的保险子公司。不过就像我说过的,供给吃紧的状况不会维持太久,大家最后还是会回到低价竞争的老路,不过一两年内,我们在几项业务方面还是有很好的发挥空间,Mike Goldberg 在营运上作了许多的改进(本人先前的管理不当,提供他不少发挥的空间) ,尤其是最近几年他找了许多深具潜力的优秀人才进来,明年他们将更有机会一显长才。
Combined Ratio方面也由去年的134进步到今年的111,只不过过去不良的影响还在,去年我曾告诉各位由于本人在损失准备的提列不当,我曾保证会定期跟各位报告,本来我是想说以后的记录应该会渐渐改善,不过到目前为止,好象并非如此,细节详后述,去年的损失准备提列与前几年一样还是明显不足。所幸不足的部份主要发生在再保部份,而许多保单已陆续到期,这种解释使我想起许多年前,通用再保的董事长告诉我的一个小故事,他说每年公司的经理人都告诉他「除了佛罗里达的飓风豁中西部的龙卷风的话,今年的成绩一定很好」,到最后实在忍不住他召集所有干部开会并建议他们干脆另外成立一个新的部门,叫作「除了」部门专门把他们后来不计入的业务塞在那里算了。不管是在保险或其它行业也好,应该把「除了」这个字眼从辞典里删除,如果你要参加比赛,就应该把对手所有的得分全部计入,任何一直把「除了」挂在嘴上的经理人,之后只会说又上了一课的人,真正应该上的课是应该要换得是演员而不是剧本。当然不可避免的作生意往往会出些差错,而聪明的经理人一定能从中记取教训,但这教训最好是从别人身上学来的,若过去习惯犯错表示未来还是会继续犯错。
波克夏持有38%股权的GEICO公司,在保费收入成长与投资收益方面皆表现突出,但在承保结果与其过去高标准相较却表现平平,私家小客车与住宅房屋险是去年度恶化最厉害的险种,GEICO也难逃一劫,虽然它的成绩比起其它主要的竞争对手要好得多。Jack在年中离开GEICO去主持消防人员基金,留下Bill与Lou担任正副董事长,Jack之前挽救GEICO免于破产的表现卓著,他的努力使得波克夏获益良多,我们欠他的实在是数不清。其中还包括吸引许多优秀的人才,他找到具有跟他一样特质的经营阶层来继承他,使得他对公司的贡献与影响力超过他实际的任期。


?绝对不要轻易放弃任何一张饭票,结果我们跟着Jack 加入由他担任控股公司董事长兼总经理的消防人员基金,1985年九月一日我们成为FFIC集团7%的参与者(不包括他们为不相关的公司所接的再保险保单) ,合约为期四年,明订期间的损失与成本依比例分摊,除非到期前予以展期,否则我们将不再继续参与,不过在可预见的未来我们仍须分摊FFIC在四年间发生的损失中的7%。合约签订后FFIC须立即将7%的保费汇给我们,而我们也必须马上支付其所发生的任何损失,预收的资金则用在投资之上,合约附带条件是本人必须随时提供一般投资咨询服务给FFIC,但我并不介入特定投资决策,而波克夏也不参与该公司任何的保险业务。目前FFIC 的业务量约达三十亿美元,且当费率调涨后规模有可能再增加,该公司在1985年九月的未到期保费准备达十三亿美元,所以FFIC汇了其中的7%,相当于九千多万美金给我们,同时我们也支付了三千万美金给他们代表他们已预付的理赔费用,这部份的业务完全由National Indemnity承作,之后再将其中的七分之二转给Wesco的子公司。在保险部门我们特别新增一项主要分配合约,不过由于属于新业务,所有数字只能算是大概的估计。到了年底我们又取得一件新合约,明年度的金额大约为五千万元,我们希望能够扩展这项业务,而产业环境也不错,许多公司产生超过其本身处理能力的业务,而我们坚强的财务实力正是他们希望合作的最好对象。


Company Name
 
 
 
Shares
 
Cost
 
 
 
Market
 
Unrealized
 

Affiliated Publications, Inc.
 
(a)
 
1,036,461
 
3,516
 
 
 
55,710
 
52,194
 

American Boradcasting Company
 
(a)
 
900,800
 
54,435
 
 
 
108,997
 
54,562
 

Exxon Corporation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

General Foods, Inc
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

GEIGO Corporation
 
(a)
 
6,850,000
 
45,713
 
 
 
595,950
 
550,237
 

Handy & Harman
 
(a)
 
2,379,200
 
27,318
 
 
 
43,718
 
16,400
 

Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Media General
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Northwest Industries
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Ogilvy & Mather Int'l, Inc
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

R.J. Reynolds Industries
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Time, Inc
 
(a)
 
847,788
 
20,385
 
 
 
52,669
 
32,284
 

The Washington Post Company
 
(a)
 
1,727,765
 
9,731
 
 
 
205,172
 
195,441
 

All Other Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
7,201
 
 
 
27,963
 
20,762
 

Total Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
275,110
 
 
 
1,198,321
 
923,211
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
239,299
 

?我们之前曾提到过去十年来投资环境已由过去完全不看重大企业的情况转变成适当的认同,华盛顿邮报就是一个最好的例子,我们在1973年中以不到当时内含价值四分之一的价格买进股权,计算价格/价值比并不需要有独到的眼光,大部份的证券分析师、经纪人与媒体经营者跟我们一样估计该公司的价值约在四亿到五亿美元之间,但当时其仅一亿的股票市值却是随处可见,只是我们具有的优势是态度,我们从葛拉罕那里学到成功投资的关键是在买进好的公司股票在其股价相对于代表的实际价值被低估的时候。在1970年代早期大部份的机构投资人却认为企业价值与他们考量买进卖出的价格并无太大关联,现在看来当然令人难以置信,然而当时他们受到知名的商学院所提出的新理论所惑,「股票市场具有完全的效率,因此计算企业的价值对于投资活动一点也不重要」,事后想想我们实在欠这些学者太多了,在不管是桥牌、西洋棋或是选股等斗智的竞赛中,还有什么能让我们更有利的,当对手被告知思考是白费力气的一件事。
1973到1974年间华盛顿邮报表现依旧良好使得内在价值持续增加,尽管如此我们在该公司的持股市值却由原始成本的一仟多万减少25%变成八百万美元,本来我们觉得已经够便宜的东西,没想到在一年之后具有无比大智能的市场又将它的标价又向下调整到至少比其实际价值少两成的地步。
美好的结局可以预知,Kay Graham-华盛顿邮报的总裁具有无比的智能与勇气除了拥有极佳的管理长才将公司的内在价值进一步提升之外,更大手笔地以便宜的价格大量买回公司的股份,在此同时投资人开始体认到公司特殊的竞争优势而使得公司股价回升到合理的价位。所以我们经历了三重享受,一来公司本身的价值提升,二来每股所代表的价值因公司实施库藏股又增加,三来随着折价幅度逐渐缩小,股价的表现超越公司价值实际增加。
除了1985年依持股比例卖回给公司的股份外,其它的持股皆未变动,年底持股的市值加上卖回股份所得的收入合计为二亿二仟万美元。
假若在当初1973年中我们将一仟万随便投资一家当时最热门的媒体事业,则到今年年底我们持股的市值大约会在四到六仟万元之间,这结果显然比一般市场的平均表现高出许多,其原因在于媒体的特殊竞争力,至于再多出来的一亿六仟万部份是因为华盛顿邮报的总裁Kay作出的决策优于其它媒体事业的经营者,虽然她惊人的事业成就并未有人大幅报导,但波克夏的所有股东却不能不加以珍惜。
由于我们买下资本城股份(后面会详描述)使得我必须在1986年被迫离开华盛顿邮报的董事会,但只要法令许可我们将无限期的持有华盛顿邮报的股份,我们期待该公司的价值持续稳定成长,我们也知道公司的管理阶层有才能且完全以股东的利益为导向,不过该公司的市值目前已增加为十八亿美元,公司的价值很难再以当初市值仅一亿美元时的速度成长,也由于我们其它主要的持股股价大多已反映,所以我们的投资组合很难再像过去一般具成长潜力。


?或许你会发现年底我们有一大笔Beatrice公司的持股,这是属于短期的套利动作,算是闲置资金暂时的去处(虽然不是百分之百安全,因为交易有时也会发生问题导致重大的损失) ,但我们大多只参与已宣布的购并案,当然若能为这些资金找到更长期可靠的去处我们会更高兴,但现阶段却找不到任何合适的对象。
到年底为止,我们旗下保险子公司大约持有四亿美元的免税债券,其中大约有一半是WPPSS华盛顿公用电力供应系统发行的债券(该公司我已于去年详尽的说明同时也解释在事情尘埃落定之前我们为何不愿进一步说明公司的进出动作,就像我们投资股票时一样,到年底我们在该债券的未实现投资利益为六仟二百万美元,三分之一的原因是由于债券价格普遍上涨,其余则是投资人对于WPPSS一、二、三期计划有较正面的看法,我们每年从该投资所获得的免税利益大约为三仟万美元。


?大约在年后,波克夏买进约三百万股的资本城/ABC股票,(每股价格172.5美元,我追踪该公司的管理绩效已有许多年,我认为他们是上市公司当中最优秀的,汤姆墨菲与丹柏克不但是最优秀的管理阶层,也是那种你会想把自己的女儿嫁给他的那一种人,跟他们一起合作实在是我的荣幸,也相当愉快,若相信各位若认识他们应该也会有这种感觉。
我们的股权投资使得资本城能够取得三十五亿美元的资金用来购并美国广播公司ABC,虽然对资本城来说,或许ABC的效益无法在短暂几年内就立竿见影,但我们很有耐心一点也不心急,毕竟就算是才华与努力俱备,还是需要时间来发酵,就算你让九个女人同时怀孕,也不可能让小孩一个月就生出来。
为了展现我们的信心,我们特别与管理阶层签订了一项协议,在一定的期间内,我们的投票权将交给担任CEO的汤姆墨菲(或是接任的丹柏克)来处理。事实上这项提案是由我与查理主动提出,同时我们还自我限制了一些卖出股份的条件,这个动作主要是为了确保我们出售的股份不会落到未经现有管理阶层同意的人士身上,有点类似几年前我们与吉列刮胡刀与华盛顿邮报签订的协议。
由于有时钜额的股票交易可能必须要溢价,有些人可能认为这样的限制可能会损及波克夏股东的权益,不过我们的看法正好完全相反,身为公司的所有权人,我们认定这些企业的长期经济利益将因为这些限制而更加巩固,因为如此一来专业经理人便能全心全意的为公司打拼,进而为全体股东创造最大的利益,很显然的这比让一些经理人整天为了换不同的老板而分心,(当然有些经理人会把自己的利益摆在公司的利益之前,所以我们在投资时会尽量避开这类的经营阶层)
今天企业的不稳定性是股权分散的必然结果,一家公司随时都会有大公东浮上台面,满口仁义道德但实际上却包藏祸心,我们常藉由锁住自身持有的股权来宣示对公司稳定的支持,这种安定感加上好的经营阶层与企业型态,是让企业获利丰收的沃土,这就是我们会这样安排的用意所在。
当然人性面也很重要,我们不希望我们欣赏与推崇的经理人,在欢迎我们的加入后,会担心一觉醒来,因为我们持有重要股权,所有事情一夕生变。我告诉他们绝对放心,我们一定说话算话,而且也包括波克夏公司的承诺,万一我个人发生了什么不幸(意思是指我本人活不到一百岁就挂了) 。
当然我们投资资本城的这次交易并未占到什么便宜,这反应出近年来媒体事业的蓬勃发展(当然还比不上某些购并案的疯狂),事实上也没有多少讨价还价的余地,但重点是这项投资让我们能与这杰出的人材与事业结合在一起,而且是相当庞大的规模。
至于有人可能会觉得很奇怪,为何同样一家公司,你们的董事长在五、六年前以43块的价钱卖掉,而现在却以172.5块的高价买回,有关这个问题,容我在多花一点时间,想一个漂亮一点的答案给各位。


?同一期间我们还花斥资三亿二千万美金购并了位于克里夫兰的史考特费泽,下一个段落我将会说明波克夏购并公司的一些标准,史考特费泽就是个典型的例子-易懂、够大、管理佳、很会赚钱。
该公司有17项事业,年营业额约七亿美金,很多都是该行的领导者,投资报酬率相当高,拥有许多知名品牌,如克比家护系统、空气压缩机、瓦斯炉等。另外著名的世界百科全书约占该公司销售额的四成,是主要的营业项目之一,其销售量比起其它四家同业的量还多。
我和查理对世界百科全书特别感兴趣,事实上我读他们的书已有25年的历史,现在连我自己的孙子都有一套,它被所有的老师、图书馆与读者评选为最有用的百科全书,而且它的售价比起同类型的书还便宜,这种价美物廉产品的结合使得我们愿意以该公司提出的价格进行投资,尽管直销业近几年来表现并不出色。
另外值得注意的是担任该公司总裁已九年的Ralph Schey,由于1960年代的购并风潮,当他上任时,该公司共有多达31项的事业,他大刀阔斧将不合适或不赚钱的事业处置掉,他在资本分配上的功力相当杰出,我们很高兴能与他一起共事。
事实上购并史考特费泽的过程相当有趣,在我们介入之前还有段小插曲,早在1984年便传出该公司有意要出售,一家投资银行顾问花了好几个月编织了许多美丽的远景,以吸引一些买主上门,最后在1985年中一项具有员工认股计划特色的出售案为股东大会所通过,然而到了最后节骨眼却由于特定因素被搁置,我在报上看到这项消息,立刻写了一封简短的信给Ralph Schey,虽然我并认识他本人,我说我们很欣赏公司过去的表现,不知道他有没有兴趣与我们谈一谈,不久我与查理便在芝加哥与Ralph碰面共进晚餐,并在隔周正式签定购并合约。
由于这项购并案与原本保险事业的大幅成长,将使明年公司的营收超越二十亿美元,大概是今年的两倍。
史考特费泽购并案充份说明了我们对于购并采取随性的态度,我们并没有任何特定的策略与计划,也没有专人来研究一些中介者提供的企划案,反而我们倾向一切顺其自然,反正时候到了,我们就会有逤行动。


?为了主动向命运招手,我们依惯例还是列出征求企业被购并的小广告,今年惟一的小变动是第一项获利的标准略微提高,主要是因为我们期望购并能为波克夏带来明显的改变:


1.巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有一千万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)
我们不会进行敌意购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。我们欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听,对于那些好的公司与好的经营阶层,我们可以提供一个好的归属。
另一方面我们也持续接到一些不符合我们条件的询问,包括新事业、转机股、拍卖案以及最常见的中介案(那些说你们要是能过碰一下面,一定会感兴趣之类的) 。在此重申我们对这些一点兴趣都没有。(1985)


?除了以上买下整家公司的购并案外,我们也会考虑买进一大部份不具控制权的股份,就像我们在资本城这个Case一样,当然这要是我们对于该事业与经营阶层都感到认同时才有可能,而且是要大笔的交易,最少也要五千万美金以上,当然是越多越好。


?今年破记录的有96.8%的有效股权参与1985年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约四百多万美元捐出的款项分配给1,724家慈善机构,同时去年我们针对股东对于这项计划与股利政策的看法,进行全面性的公民投票,包含一个可以让你表达对这项计划的意见(例如应否继续、每一股应捐赠多少等等)你可能会有兴趣知道事实上在此之前从未有一家公司是以股东的立场来决定公司捐款的去向(为免划地自限,我们尽量将问题的措辞保持弹性) ,在股东会的资料中有相关的选票与结果,我们各位的响应对于本公司现行政策的执行具有重要的参考价值。


?我们也建议新股东赶快阅读相关信息,若你也想参加的话,我们强烈建议你赶快把股份从经纪人那儿改登记于自己的名下。


?五年前由于银行控股公司法的通过使得我们必须将旗下所有伊利诺银行的股权处份掉,当时我们的作法是相当特别的,我们宣布波克夏与洛克福银行集团(伊利诺银行的母公司)的换股比率,让除了我本人以外的所有股东自行决定是否将其所有或部份波克夏的股份转独立的洛克福银行集团股份,剩下的部份由我本人全数吸收,当时我曾说,这种分法是最古老且最有效分配一件东西的方法,就像是小时候大人会叫一个小孩切蛋糕,然后叫另一个小孩先选一块一样,由我先将公司切成两半,在让所有股东自由选择。
去年伊利诺银行正式出售,当洛克福银行集团清算结束,所有股东所收到的售股收入与每股波克夏的价值相当,我很高兴五年后看来当时那块蛋糕切的相当公平。


?去年超过三千名的股东中大约有250名出席股东会,与会者的水准与去年相当,问的问题显示大家都是有智能且真正关心公司的股东,这在其它上市公司的股东会是很少见到的,麦达克思-在担任乔治亚州州长时曾批评当时糟糕透顶的狱政制度:「解决的方法其实很简单,我们要做的就是提升人犯的素质水准」,我想要提升股东会的水准也是一样的道理。


?波克夏的股东年会预计于1986年五月二十在奥玛哈举行,我希望各位届时都能参加,今年将会有一项改变,那就是经过48年的坚持,本人将进行一项前所未有的习惯改变,将平常喝的饮料改成新的樱桃可口可乐,而它也将是本次波克夏-海瑟威股东大会的指定引料。
最后记得带钱来,B太太已经答应若股东在会议期间造访她的家具店将会有意想不到的折扣优惠!!


一九八六年 

本公司在去年(1986年)的帐面净值增加了26.1%,大约是四亿九千多万美元,在过去的22个年头(也就是现有经营阶层接掌本公司后) ,帐面每股净值由19.46美元,成长到2,073美元,年复合成长率为23.3%,在计算每股净值时,分子与分母都同样的重要,过去22年公司整体的净值虽然增加超过有一百倍之多,但流通在外的股份却增加不到一个百分点

在过去的年报中我已不只一次地提醒大家,多数公司的帐面价值与其实际的内在价值其实存在有极大的差异(后者才是对股东真正要紧的),不过以我们公司本身的状况而言,过去十多年来帐面价值在某种程度(从保守的角度),却颇能代表本公司实际的价值。意思是说Berkshire企业的价值略微超越其帐面价值,两者之间的比例一直维持着稳定的差距。

而现在跟各位报告的好消息是,在1986年本公司企业价值增加的幅度应该是超过帐面价值增加的幅度,我说"应该是"是因为企业价值的判断较为弹性,以我们本身的例子来说,两个同样完全了解本公司的人所衡量出的价值,可以会差到10%以上。

本公司去年企业价值成长的原因,主要系归功于旗下主要企业经理人杰出的表现,包含the Blumkins, Mike Goldberg, the Heldmans, Chuck Huggins, Stan Lipsey与 Ralph Schey等人,这些企业,除了保险业外,这几年来在没有耗费额外的资金的前提之下,还能稳定的提高公司的获利,这种成就塑造出我们所谓典型的经济价值或商誉,这虽然无法在公司的资产负债表上反映出来,但必须向各位报告,在1986年这种情况极为显著。

讲完了好消息,接下来的坏消息是本人的表现并不足以与这些优秀的经理人匹配,当他们在各自的岗位上努力经营事业,可是我却没能好好有效地利用他们所产生的资金。

查理孟格跟我平时主要只有两项工作,一个是吸引并维系优秀的经理人来经营我们的各种事业,这项工作并不太难,通常在我们买下一家企业时,其本来的经理人便早已在各种产业展现他们的长才,我们只要确定没有妨碍到他们即可,这点非常重要,如果我的工作是组织一支职业高尔夫球队,若尼克劳斯或阿诺帕玛愿意替我效力,我实在不必太费心去教他们如何挥杆。

其实我们一些经理人自己本身已经相当富有,(当然我们希望所有的经理人都如此)但这一点都不影响他们继续为公司效力,他们之所以工作是因为乐在其中并散发出干劲,毫无疑问地他们皆站在老板的角度看事情,这是我们对这些经理人最高的恭维,而且你会为他们经营事业各方面成就所着迷。

这种职业病的典型,就像是一位天主教的裁缝省吃俭用了好几年,好不容易存了一笔钱到梵蒂冈朝圣,当他回来后,教友们特地集会争相想要了解他对教宗的第一手描述,赶快告诉我们,教宗到底是个怎么样的人,只见这位裁逢师,淡淡地说︰「四十四腰,中等身材。」

查理跟我都知道,只要找到好球员,任何球队经理人都可以做的不错,就像是奥美广告创办人大卫奥美曾说︰「若我们雇用比我们矮小的人,那么我们会变成一群株孺,相反地若我们能找到一群比我们更高大的人,我们就是一群巨人。」

而这种企业文化也使得查理跟我可以很容易地去扩展波克夏的事业版图,我们看过许多企业规定一个主管只能管辖一定人数的人员,但这规定对我们来说一点意义都没有,当你手下有一群正直又能干的人才,在帮你经营一项他们深具感情的事业时,你大可以同时管理一打以上这样的人,而且还行有余力打个盹,相反地,若他们存心要欺骗你或是能力不够或是没有热情时,只要一个就够你操心的了,只要找对人,查理与我甚至可以同时管理比现在多一倍的经理人都没有问题

我们将会继续维持这种与我们喜爱与崇敬的伙伴合作的原则,这种原则不但可以确保经营的绩效极大化,也可以让我们能享受愉快的时光。否则要是仅为了赚钱成天与一些会令你反胃的人为伍,这感觉就好象是当你本来就已经很有钱时,你还为了钱跟不喜欢的人结婚一样。

查理跟我的第二项工作是处理资金的分配,这在Berkshire尤其重要,其主要原因有三,一是因为我们赚的钱比别人多,二是我们通常将所赚的钱保留下来,最后也最重要的是因为我们旗下的企业可以不需要太多的资金便能维持竞争力与成长性,

的确一家每年能赚23%且全数保留盈余的公司,比起每年只赚10%,且只保留半数盈余的公司,前者资金分配的任务要繁重的多,所以将来若是我们运用盈余的方式不佳,或是旗下主要被投资公司,诸如盖可、美国广播公司等表现不好,则Berkshire经营情况恶化的程度将会非常地快,假设公司净值以后每年只有5%的成长,则公司资金分配的工作虽然还是很重要,但体质改善的速度也会变慢许多。

事实上在1986年Berkshire资金分配的工作并不好干,我们确实是完成了一项购并案-那就是买下费区-海默兄弟公司,后面我们还会有详细的描述,这家公司极具竞争力,而且是由那种我们喜欢打交道的人在经营,不过就是小了点,大概只运用Berkshire不到百分之二净值的资金。

在此同时我们从市场直接买进股权这方面也没有太大的进展,相较几年前我们可以利用大笔资金以合理的价格买进许多不错的股票,所以最后我们只好将资金用来偿还负债并囤积银弹,虽然这比死掉还好一点,但却没有做到繁衍下一代的任务,若是查理跟我在往后的几年持续在资金分配这方面缴白券,Berkshire净值的成长势必将会变缓许多。

我们会持续在市场上寻找符合我们标准的企业,我想要是运气好可能每几年就能够找到一家,但若想要对公司净值有明显助益,则其规模就必须够大,只是以目前的股票市场状况,我们实在很难为我们的保险公司找到合适的投资标的,当然市场终究会转变,总有一天会轮到我们站上打击位置,只不过我们不清楚何时能够换我们上场。

下表系Berkshire帐列盈余的主要来源,今年的表与前几年有几点不太一样的地方,首先由于新购事业史考特-费泽、费区-海默的加入,我们营业项目增加了史考特-费泽、寇比吸尘器、世界百科全书、费区-海默等四栏,同时也由于Berkshire整体规模扩大了许多,我们也将几个较小的部门合并列示,另外如同过去我们将个别企业购并的商誉摊销单独挑出,(原因请参阅1983年的附录)汇总后摆在最后一栏,由于史考特-费泽、费区-海默两件购并案使得1986年的商誉摊销较以往增加许多

另外史考特-费泽的购并案依一般公认会计原则采购买法处理,所以在本表也稍作调整,在合并财务报表上所显示的数字系依照一般公认会计原则所编制,但就我们本身的观点,这个数字对于经理人与投资人来说,并不见得有意义,

因此下表所显示的数字系扣除这些调整前的数字,事实上这才是这家公司原本的盈余状况,假设今天我们没有买下他们的话,(详细解释请参阅附录,不过若嫌内容不具吸引力,可以不看,当然我也知道在所有六千位股东当中,有许多对于我个人在会计方面的观点感到折服,希望你们都能好好地欣赏) ,同时我也强力推荐各位看看查理每年写给Wesco股东的年报,里头有该公司旗下事业的详细介绍


 
 
 
 
1986
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
 
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
 
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Underwriting
 
 
 
(55,844)
 
 
 
(29,864)
 

Net Investment Income
 
 
 
107,143
 
 
 
96,440
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Buffalio News
 
 
 
34,736
 
 
 
16,918
 

Fechheimer
 
 
 
8,400
 
 
 
3792
 

Illinois National Bank
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kirby
 
 
 
20,218
 
 
 
10508
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
 
 
17,685
 
 
 
7,192
 

Presion Steel
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Scott Fetzer-Diversified
 
 
 
25,358
 
 
 
13,354
 

See's Candies
 
 
 
30,347
 
 
 
15,176
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
 
 
5,542
 
 
 
5,550
 

World Book
 
 
 
21,978
 
 
 
11,670
 

Amortization of Goodwill
 
 
 
(2,555)
 
 
 
(2,555)
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
(23,891)
 
 
 
(12,213)
 

Shareholder's Contribution
 
 
 
(3,997)
 
 
 
(2,158)
 

Other
 
 
 
10,737
 
 
 
(2,346)
 

 
 
 
 
195,857
 
 
 
131,464
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
 
 
216,242
 
 
 
150,897
 

Total Earnings-all entities
 
 
 
412,099
 
 
 
282,361
 

 

如你所见营业净利在1986年大幅改善,一方面是由于保险事业(这部份连同费区-海默公司会在稍候详细说明),一方面则是其它事业群的表现:
   水牛城报纸在史坦-利普席的带领下持续表现优异,连续第三年每人工作时数皆大幅下绛,其它成本也控制得宜,即使该报的广告增加率远低于同业,营业毛利仍然大幅增加,同时控制成本并不代表我们在新闻品质上有所退让,我们的新闻量(新闻版面占整体版面的比例)持续维持在50%以上,这是现有相同或是更大规模的报纸中比例最高的,一般同业的水准约只有40%

各位可不要小看这10%的差距,同样三十页的广告,40%约有二十页新闻,50%则代表会有三十页的新闻,一比一的新闻与广告量是我们坚持的原则,我们相信这也是为何水牛城报纸能在当地拥有全美最高渗透率的重要原因(订户数占当地家庭户数的比率),其中周日版的比率更令人印象深刻,十年前水牛城最主要的周日版报纸先锋报发行量为27万份,渗透率63%,大概与全美其它大城市相当,这在当时已被视为是很自然的上限,然而从1977年水牛城报纸开始发行周日版,虽然该地区人口数不增反减,到如今其渗透率已达83%,且发行量更高达37万份。

虽然拥有超高的市场接受度,却也代表营业利润已达顶峰,虽然去年年底新闻用纸价格调涨,同时1987年的广告比率增加量也比其它新闻同业来的少,但我们仍坚持过半的新闻量,即便如此会使得我们的利润下降也在所不惜

屈指一算,今年已是我们买下水牛城报纸的第十个年头了,它带给我们的投资报酬远远超过我们的预期,还有精神上的收获也是如此,我们对于水牛城报纸及其经营者Murray Light的敬仰从买下它开始与日俱增,是他让这份报纸拥有超高的社区认同度,他们在水牛城报纸面临困难与诉讼之时所展现的耐力,并未随着日后公司迈入坦途就松卸,查理与我在此对他们表示由衷的感谢

内布拉斯加家俱店NFM的布鲁金家族持续创造商业史上的奇迹,竞争者来来去去,但B太太跟她的家族却仍屹立不摇,去年该店业绩成长10%达到一亿三千万美金,是十年前的三倍,在当时该店便已独霸整个奥玛哈地区,若再考量本地缓慢的人口成长率与温和的通货膨胀率,这种成绩更是难能可贵,而惟一可以解释的理由就是随着NFM价廉物美、样式齐全的声名远播,其市场范围持续扩大,而为了应付日后的成长,该店已着手扩充仓库,高龄93岁的B太太技压群雄,展现超高的销售能力与耐力,一周工作七天,每天从开店到打烊,想要跟她竞争需要无比的勇气,大家可能很容易就忽略B太太传奇,不过没关系93岁的她,还未抵达巅峰,等到2024年波克夏股东会召开时,请大家拭目以待

比起前几年来说喜斯糖果的销售磅数增加约2%,销售业绩略有成长,(若你是巧克力的爱好者,告诉你一个惊人的数字,我们一年的销售量是一万两千公吨) ,只是过去六年单店销售量持续下滑,使得我们只有靠增加店面来维持销售量不坠,但今年这数字大致维持不变,主要是拜圣诞节销售旺季特别旺所赐,而即便销售业绩迟滞不前,该公司仍然靠着成本控制维持利润空间,感谢Chuck Huggins在这方面为我们所做的努力

喜斯糖果算是一种独一无二的个性化商品,甜美的糖果加上公道的价格,且该公司完全掌握销售管道并由店员提供贴心的服务,Chuck的成就反应在客户的满意度之上,并进而感染到整个公司,很少有销售公司能够持续维持客户导向的精神,这一切都要归功于他,展望未来喜斯的获利应该可以维持在现有状态,我们仍会持续调整价格,以反映增加的成本,

世界百科全书是1986年加入我们的史考特-飞兹所属十七个部门中最大的一个,去年我很高兴地跟各位介绍该公司的经营者与营运状况,一年后我更加开心地向大家报告,Ralph真是个优秀的经理人,圆满地达成目标,虽然要管理各式各样的产品,并面对不同的机会问题与挑战,Ralph却使得他的工作更加精彩更多元化,而且更重要的是我们合作愉快,看来我们的好运持续不断

世界百科全书的销售量连续四年皆成长,儿童工艺套书也大幅成长,世界百科全书称霸于直销市场,不但编排精美,且平均每页不到五毛钱,可谓老少咸宜,有一数字相当有趣,那就是书中有高达四万多个困难字,入门部份由简单的生字组成,慢慢地加入难度更高的单字,如此使得年轻的读者能够循序渐进,最后轻易的便能运用大学程度以上的单字,推销百科全书是项神圣的天职,我们超过半数以上的销售人员是现职或是退休的老师,有些则是图书馆员,他们将自己视为教育工作者,而且做的有声有色,如果你家中还没有一套世界百科全书,那么我建议你赶快去买一套放在家里

寇比吸尘器同样维持连续四年的成长,全球的销售数量共成长了33%,虽然其产品价格要比同类型吸尘器贵许多,但它的性能却将其它品牌远远拋在后面,有许多产品经过了三、四十年还很耐用,想要最好的,就买寇比!

许多靠直销销售其产品的公司,近年来纷纷倒闭,主要是由于上班族妇女越来越多所致,不过到目前为止,寇比吸尘器与世界百科全书的表现算是可圈可点,以上企业再加上保险事业,便构成我们的主要事业领域,简单地带过并不意味着它们对我们不具重要性,一方面是因为许多东西在过去的年报都已报告过,一方面是因为公司的股东结构非常稳定(每年约有98%的股东会选择继续投资本公司),所以我们不必花太多时间重复赘述一些事情,当然若是有什么重大的事件或任何影响公司营运的情况,我们一定会立即向各位股东报告,总的来说,前面所提的公司都有非常稳固的经营基础,投资报酬率也很高,同时也拥有优秀的经营阶层。

另外每一年我都会在公司年报上不厌其烦地,提及我们想要买下公司的条件,在今年终于有了具体的回报,去年的一月五日我收到一位资深股东Bob的一封信,他是费区-海默公司的董事长,在此之前我并不认识Bob或费区-海默公司,他在信中提到他经营的公司应该符合我们的条件,并提议大家碰个面,于是等到该公司年度报告出炉后我们相约在奥马哈,他简单介绍一下公司的历史,这是一家专门制造与销售制服的老牌公司,成立于1842年,Bob的父亲-Warren于1941年接手,跟着Bob与现在担任总裁的弟弟George也加入该公司,在该家族的带领下,公司的业绩蒸蒸日上,1981年该公司被一家专门从事融资购并(LBO)的投资集团买下,但现有经营阶层仍保有部份股权,只是这类型的公司在被购并后,一开始通常都须承担极高的负债比率,所幸由于公司营运稳健,等负债逐渐被清偿完毕后,公司的价值便立即显现出来,基于某些原因,当初投资的LBO集团想要把股权卖掉,这时Bob立刻就想到我们

事实上费区-海默正是我们想要买的公司类型,它有悠久的历史,有才能的管理人员,品格高尚,乐在工作,且愿意与我们一起分享公司经营所带来的利益,所以我们很快地就决定以四千六百多万美元买下该公司84%的股权,这与我们当初买下内布拉斯加家具NFM的情况很类似,持有股权的大股东有资金上的需求,原有经营家族有意愿继续经营公司并持有部份股权,且希望买下公司股权的股东不要只为了价格便随便将公司股权出让,并确保股权交易完成后,公司的经营形态不受干扰,这两家公司真正是我门所想要投资的类型,而它们也确实适得其所

说来你可能不敢相信,事实上我与查理甚至根本就从未去过费区-海默位于辛辛那提的企业总部,(另外还有像帮我们经营喜斯糖果十五年之久的Chuck,也从未来过奥玛哈Berkshire的企业总部) ,所以说若Berkshire的成功是建立在不断地视察工厂的话,现在我们可能早就要面临一大堆问题了,因此在从事购并公司时,我们试着去评估该公司的竞争能力,其优势与缺点,以及经营阶层的能力与水准,费区-海默在各方面都很杰出,而Bob与George正值六十多岁的壮年期(以我们的标准而言),且后继还有Gary等三位优秀的子弟继承衣钵,身为购并的最佳典型,该公司只有唯一一个小缺点,那就是它的规模不够大,我们希望下一次有机会能遇到各方面条件都与费区-海默一般,且规模至少要有它好几倍大的公司,目前我们对于购并对象年度税后获利的基本门槛已由每年的五百万美元,提高到一千万美元,

报告完毕后,最后还是重复一下我们的广告,假若你有一家公司符合以下我们所列的条件,请尽快与我们连络

(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有一千万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)
    我们不会进行敌意购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复我们是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的企业内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则绝不考虑发行股份。我们欢迎可能的卖方向那些过去与我们合作过的伙伴打听,对于那些好的公司与好的经营阶层,我们绝对可以提供一个好的归属。
当然我们也持续接到一些不符合我们条件的询问电话,包括新事业、转机股、拍卖案以及最常见的中介案(那些通常会说你们要是能过碰一下面,一定会感兴趣之类的) 。在此重申我们对这类型案件一点兴趣都没有。

除了以上买下整家公司的购并案外,我们也会考虑买进一大部份不具控制权的股份,就像我们在资本城这个Case一样,当然这要是我们对于该事业与经营阶层都感到认同时才有可能,而且是要够大笔的交易,我想最少也要在五千万美金以上,当然是越多越好

保险事业部门

下表是我们固定提供的保险业统计数字,今年起多加了发生损失与GNP通膨指数两项,保费成长与损失比率与1986年差异,可用来解释为何整年度的承保表现能够大幅改善的原因


 
 
 
 
Yearly Change in
 
Combined Ratio
 
Yearly Change in
 
GNP Deflators
 

 
 
 
 
Premiums Written
 
 
 
Incurred Loss
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1972
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1973
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1974
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1975
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1976
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1977
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1978
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1979
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1980
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1981
 
 
 
3.8%
 
106.0%
 
 
 
6.5%
 
9.7%
 

1982
 
 
 
4.4%
 
109.8%
 
 
 
8.4%
 
6.4%
 

1983
 
 
 
4.6%
 
112.0%
 
 
 
6.8%
 
3.9%
 

1984
 
 
 
9.2%
 
117.9%
 
 
 
16.9%
 
3.8%
 

1985
 
 
 
22.1%
 
116.5%
 
 
 
16.1%
 
3.3%
 

1986
 
(Est.)
 
22.6%
 
108.5%
 
 
 
15.5%
 
2.6%
 

 

综合比率代表保险总成本(发生损失加上费用)占保费收入的比例 ,若比率低于一百,表示承保有利益,反之则会有损失,若将保险公司从保户那边收到的保费,(又称浮存金),运用在投资所赚取的利益列入考虑后(扣除股东权益部份),比率在107-112间会是损益两平点,

保险事业经营的逻辑,若用以下列简表来说明,其实一点都不复杂,当保费收入年成长率只能在4%到5%游移时,承保损失一定会增加,这不是因为意外、火灾、暴风等意外灾害发生更频繁,也不是因为通货膨胀的关系,主要的祸首在于社会与司法成本的膨胀,一方面是因为司法诉讼案件大幅增加,一方面是因为法官与陪审团倾向超越原先保单上所订的条款,扩大保险理赔的范围,若这两种情况在未来没有好转,则可以预见的是,保费收入年成长必须达到10%以上才有可能损益两平,即使目前一般通货膨胀的水准维持在2%到4%之间也一样

如表上所示,保险业保费收入成长的速度甚至高于理赔损失增加的速度,因此承保损失大幅下降,去年的年报我们就已预先报告可能会有这种情形发生,同时还判断这样的荣景只是短暂的,很不幸的再一次我们一语中的,今年保费成长的速度已大幅减缓,从第一季的27.1%一路下滑到第四季的18.7%,而且我们预期还会进一步下滑,最后很有可能会落到10%的损益两平点之下,但尽管如此,只要1987年没有发生什么重大的灾难,由于保费调整的递延性,承保结果还是能够改善,通常在保费调整的半年到一年后,效果会反应到公司的盈余之上,但好景通常不易维持,过不了多久一切又会回到原点,

保险商品的订价行为与一般商品的订价模式几乎一模一样,唯有在供给短缺时价格才会上来,但偏偏这种光景维持不了多久,当获利旭日东升时,马上就有人会进来泼冷水,增加投入资金抢食大饼,结果当然会埋下不少后遗症,供给增加,代表价格下跌,跟着获利剧减,

当保险业龙头在要求他们的同业在订价时要维持同行之谊,我们可以观察到一个有趣的现象,他们会问为什么我们不能从历史经验中学到教训,不管景气低潮或高峰,都能够合理的订价以维持适当的获利呢??他们当然希望保险费能够像华尔街日报一样,有一个好的开始,同时又能够每年持续稳定的调涨价格,但这种诉求得到的效果,就像内布拉斯加州种植玉米的农夫,要求全世界其它种植玉米的农夫一起遵守道德规范一样有限,事实上道德诉求的效果极其有限,重点是如何让玉米的产量变少,最近两年来保险同业从资本市场上所募集的资金,就好象是新进耕种的玉米田一样,结果是更多更多的玉米产量,只会使市场价格进一步滑落,我们自己本身的保险事业在1986年的表现还算不错,展望明年一样乐观,虽然市场的状况让我们获益不少,但真正要感谢的却是旗下经理人优异的能力与表现,我们的综合比率从1985年的111减少到1986年的103,此外我们的保费成长率更是杰出,虽然最后的数字现在还无从得知,但我确信我们是前一百大保险公司中成长最快的,诚然有一部份的成长来自于我们与消防人员退休基金的合约,但即使在扣除这部份之后,我们仍然维持第一,有趣的是在1985年我们是所有保险业者中成长最慢的一家,事实上我们是不增反减,而只要市场情况不佳时,我们仍会维持这样的做法,我们保费收入忽上忽下并不代表我们在这个市场来来去去,事实上我们是这个市场最稳定的参与者,随时作好准备,只要价格合理,我们愿意不计上限签下任何高额的保单,不像其它业者一下子进入这个市场,一下子又退出,所以当其它同业因资金不足或慑于巨大的损失退出市场时,保户会大量涌向我们,且会发现我们早已作好准备,反之当所有业者抢进市场,大幅杀价甚至低于合理成本时,客户又会受到便宜的价格所吸引,离开我们投入竞争对手的怀抱,我们对于价格的坚持,对客户来说一点困扰也没有,当他发现有更便宜的价格时,随时可以离去,同样地对我们的员工也不会造成困扰,我们不会因为景气循环一时的低潮就大幅裁员,奉行不裁员的政策,事实上这也是为了公司好,否则担心业务量减少而被裁员的员工可能会想尽办法弄一些有的没有的业务进来给公司,这在国家保险公司所从事的汽车保险与一般责任保险最可以看出,同业是如何一会儿贪生怕死,一会儿又勇往前进,在1984年的最后一季,该公司平均月保费收入是500万美元,大约维持在正常的水准,但到了1986年的第一季,却大幅攀升至3,500万美元,之后又很快地减少到每月2,000万元的水准,相信只要竞争者持续加入市场,并杀价竞争,该公司的业务量还会继续减少,讽刺的是部份新加入保险公司的经理人,就是几年前让原本几家旧有保险公司破产倒闭的那批原班人马,不可思议的是我们竟然还要透过政府强制的保证基金机制,来分摊他们部份的损失

这种我们称之为高风险的险种在1986年大幅成长,且在未来也会扮演相当重要的角色,通常一次所收取的保费就可能超过百万美元,有的甚至还更高,当然承保最后的结果可能会两极化,不管是保费收入或是承保获利,但我们雄厚的财务实力与高度的承保意愿(只要价格合理)使我们在市场上相当有竞争力,另一方面,我们在结构清偿业务则因为现在的价格不理想而接近停摆,1986年损失准备的变动详附表,数字显示我们在1985年底所犯的估计错误,在今年已渐渐浮现,就像去年我提醒各位的,我们所提的负债准备与事实有很大的出入,而造成连续三年一连串的错误,若照木偶奇遇记的标准,我的鼻子可能早已能够吸引众人的目光

当保险公司主管事后补提适当的损失准备,他们通常会解释成”加强”损失准备,以冠上合理的说法,理直气壮地好象的是真要在已经健全的财务报表上再多加一层保障,事实上并非如此,这只是修正以前所犯错误的婉转说法而已,(虽然可能是无心的) ,在1986年我们特别花了一番功夫在这上面做调整,但只有时间能告诉我们先前所作的损失准备预测是否正确,而尽管在预测损失与产品行销上我们遭遇极大的挑战,我们仍乐观地预期我们的业务量能够成长并获取不少利润,只是前进的步伐可能会不太规则,甚至有时还会出现令人不太愉快的结果发生,这是一项变化多端的行业,所以必须更加小心谨慎,我们时时谨记伍迪艾伦所讲的,一只羊大可以躺在狮子的旁边,但你千万不要妄想好好地睡一觉,在保险业我们拥有的优势是我们的心态与资本,同时在人员素质上也渐入佳境,此外,利用收得保费加以好好运用,更是我们竞争的最大利基,在这个产业也唯有多方条件配合,才有机会成功

由Berkshire 持有41%股权的GEICO公司,在1986年表现相当突出,就整个产业而言,个人险种的承保表现一般来说不如商业险种,但以个人险种为主要业务的GEICO其综合比率却降低到96.9,同时保费收入亦成长了16%,另外该公司也持续买回自家公司的股份,总计一年下来流通在外的股份减少了5.5%,我们依投资比例所分得的保费收入已超过五亿美元,大约较三年前增加一倍,GEICO的帐是全世界保险公司中最好的,甚至比Berkshire本身都还要好,GEICO之所以能够成功的重要因素,在于该公司从头到脚彻底地精简营运成本,使得它把其它所有车险公司远远拋在脑后,该公司去年的费用损失占保费收入的比例只有23.5%,许多大公司的比例甚至比GEICO还要多出15%,即使是像Allstate 与 State Farm等车险直销业者成本也比GEICO高出许多

若说GEICO是一座价值不菲且众所仰望的商业城堡,那么其与同业间的成本与费用差异就是它的护城河,没有人比Bill,也就是GEICO的主席,更懂得如何去保护这座城堡,靠着持续降低成本开支,他不断地将这个护城河加大,使得这城堡更加稳固,过去两年间,GEICO创造了23.5%超低成本率,展望未来,这项比率仍将持续下降,若能够同时再兼顾产品品质与客户服务的话,这家公司的前途将无可限量,另外GEICO这一飞冲天的火箭,同时由负责投资部门的副主席Lou Simpson点燃第二节燃料仓,比起Lou Simpson于1979年接掌该公司投资部门后的绩效,身为母公司Berkshire投资主管的我,实在觉得有点汗颜,而也因为我们拥有这家公司大部分的股权,使我在向各位报告以下数字时,能够稍微心安理得一些

必须再次强调的是以上的数字不但是漂亮极了,更由于其稳定成长的态势,Lou能够不断地找到价值被低估的股票加以投资,所以风险相对很低,也很少会产生损失,总而言之GEICO是一家由好的经理人经营的好公司,我们很容幸能与他们一起共事


 
 
GEICO's Equities
 
 
 
S&P500
 

1980
 
23.7%
 
 
 
 
 
32.3%
 

1981
 
5.4%
 
 
 
 
 
-5.0%
 

1982
 
45.8%
 
 
 
 
 
21.4%
 

1983
 
36.0%
 
 
 
 
 
22.4%
 

1984
 
21.8%
 
 
 
 
 
6.2%
 

1985
 
45.8%
 
 
 
 
 
31.6%
 

1986
 
38.7%
 
 
 
 
 
18.6%
 

 

有价证券

在去年我们的保险公司总计买近了七亿美元的免税政府公债,到期日分别在八到十二年之间,或许你会觉得这样的投入表示我们对于债券情有独钟,不幸的是事实并非如此,债充其量券只不过是个平庸的投资工具,他们不过是选择投资标的时看起来最不碍眼的投资替代品,虽然现在看起来也是,我突然发现我与Mae West的喜好完全相反,她曾说:「我只爱两种男人,本国人或是外国人」,现在的我对股票与债券皆不感兴趣

在保险公司随着资金持续涌入,我们当然必须将有价证券列入投资组合,一般来说我们只有五种选择:

(1) 长期股票投资(2)长期固定收益债券(3)中期固定收益债券(4)短期约当现金(5)短期套利交易

在其中股票算是最有乐趣的,当状况好时,我是说找到经营得当,业绩蒸蒸日上但价值被低估的公司,很有机会你会挥出大满贯的全垒打,不过很不幸的是目前我们根本找不到类似这样的标的,这不代表我们要预测未来的股市,事实上我们从来就不知道股市接下来到底是会涨还是会跌,不过我们确知的是贪婪与恐惧这两种传染病在股市投资世界里,会不断地发生上演,只是发生的时点很难准确预期,而市场波动程度与状况一样不可捉摸,所以我们要做的事很简单,当众人都很贪心大作时,尽量试着让自己觉得害怕;反之当众人感到害怕时,尽量让自己贪心一点

而当我在写这段文章时,整个华尔街几乎嗅不到一丝的恐惧,反而到处充满了欢乐的气氛,没有理由不这样啊?有什么能够比在牛市中,股东因股票大涨赚取比公司本身获利更多的报酬而感到更高兴的事,只是我必须说很不幸的是,股票的表现不可能永远超过公司本身的获利表现,反倒是股票频繁的交易成本与投资管理费用,将使得投资人所获得的报酬无可避免地远低于其所投资公司本身的获利,以美国企业来说,平均投资报酬率为12%,这表示其投资人平均所能获得的报酬将低于此数,牛市可以暂时模糊数学算术,但却无法推翻它

第二种投资选择是长期债券,除非在特殊情况下,就像是我们在1984年年报曾提到的华盛顿功用电力系统所发行的公司债,(截至年底我们拥有该公司债券的未摊销成本为二亿一千万美元,市价则为三亿一千万美元),否则债券这种投资标的实在很难引起我们的兴趣

我们对于长期债券没有兴趣的原因在于对于未来十几年通货膨胀可能再度肆虐的潜在恐惧,长期而言,汇率的演变将取决于立法诸公的态度,这会威胁到汇率的稳定,进而影响到长期债券投资人的利益,我们持续将资金运用在套利之上,然而不像其它套利客,每年从事几十个案子,我们只锁定在少数几个个案,我们限制自己只专注在几个已经公布消息的大案子,避开尚未明朗化的,虽然这样会让我们的获利空间减小,但相对的只要运气不要太差,我们预期落空的机率也会减少许多,到年底为止,手上只有一个案子Lear-Siegler,另外还有一笔一亿四千五百万的应收款项,这是联合利华用来买下庞氏欠我们的款项

套利是除了政府债券以外,短期资金运用的替代品,但风险与报酬相对都比较高,到目前为止,这些套利投资的报酬确实比政府债券要来的好的多,不过即便如此,一次惨痛的经验将使总成绩猪羊变色

另外虽然有些不情愿,我们也将目光摆在中期的免税债券之上,买下这类债券我们将承担钜额损失的风险,若可能的话我们在到期之前就会把它们卖掉,当然这样的风险也提供我们相对的报酬,到目前为止未实现的获利还是比短期债券要来的好的多,不过这种高报酬在扣除可能承担损失的风险与额外的税负,其实报酬好不了多少,更何况还有可能估计错误,不过即便我们真的发生损失,其程度还是比我们不断在短期债券上打滚来的好

不如何,大家必须有个体认那就是以目前的市场状况,我们在债券或股票的预期报酬都不会太高,目前我们可以做的,顶多是认赔处分一些债券,然后重新将资金投入到未来可能好一点的股票投资上,债券会发生损失的原因在于利率高涨,当然这同样也会压缩股票的价格

下表是我们截至1986年底金额超过二千五百万以上股票的投资组合,不包含Wesco与NFM在内


Company Name
 
 
 
Shares
 
Cost
 
 
 
Market
 
Unrealized
 

Affiliated Publications, Inc.
 
(a)
 
1,036,461
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Aluminum Company of America
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

American Boradcasting Company
 
(a)
 
900,800
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Arcata Corporation(Inc. Common Equi)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Beatrice Companies, Inc.
 
 
 
2,350,922
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Capital Cities/ABC
 
 
 
 
 
515,775
 
 
 
801,694
 
285,919
 

Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Crum & Forster
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Exxon Corporation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

GATX Corporation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

General Foods, Inc
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

GEIGO Corporation
 
 
 
6,850,000
 
45,713
 
 
 
674,725
 
629,012
 

Handy & Harman
 
 
 
2,379,200
 
27,318
 
 
 
46,989
 
19,671
 

Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kaiser Alumnium & Chemical Corp.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Lear Siegler
 
 
 
 
 
44,064
 
 
 
44,587
 
523
 

Media General
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

National Detroit Corporation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

National Student Marketing
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Northwest Industries
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Ogilvy & Mather Int'l, Inc
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Pinkerton, Inc.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

R.J. Reynolds Industries
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

SAFECO Corporation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Time Mirror Company
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Time, Inc
 
(a)
 
847,788
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Washington Post Company
 
 
 
1,727,765
 
9,731
 
 
 
269,531
 
259,800
 

EW Woolworth Company
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

All Other Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
12,763
 
 
 
36,507
 
23,744
 

Total Common Stock
 
 
 
 
 
655,364
 
 
 
1,874,033
 
1,218,669
 

Incremantal
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
295,458
 

 

大家要特别注意的是我们会将三项投资列为永久的投资组合,分别是资本城/ABC、GEICO与华盛顿邮报,即便这些股票目前的价格看起来有些高估,我们也不打算把它们卖掉,就像即使有人出再高的价格,我们也不打算卖喜斯糖果或水牛城报纸一样,这种态度现今看起来有点老套过时,现在当红的基金经理人所谓的企业组合,大多是为了迎合华尔街的喜好,列出适合再造的对象,(奇怪的是企业再造的定义范围却只限于拋弃被锁定的企业,但却不包含其经理人与负责人本身,侲恨罪恶却深爱犯罪者,这种理论在财富五百大企业流传地跟救世军一样普遍

基金经理人更是肾上腺素分泌过多,他们的行为在股票交易时间大声叫嚣让不断念经的苦行僧看起来显得安静许多,事实上机构投资人这个名词听起来,跟超级大虾米、女性泥巴摔角手、收费便宜的律师,同时并列自相矛盾的修饰名词

尽管这种对于购并案的乐衷横扫整个美国金融界与企业界,但我们还是坚持这种至死不分离的政策,这是查理跟我唯一能够感到自在的方式,事实证明这种方式长期下来让我们有不错的获利,也让我们的经理人与被投资公司专注于本业之上而免于分心

去年我们投资了二千三百多万在NHP50%股权,这是一家房屋租赁发展与整合商,不过若所有主管股票认股权都行使的话,我们的权益大概会降到45%左右

该公司有段非凡的历史血统,1967年美国总统詹森指定Kaiser带领一个由民间与企业领袖所组成特别小组,研究如何满足中低收入家庭市场的生活所需,最后有两个小组因此具体成形,而目前这两者皆由NHP所拥有,在其中有一条特殊的规定,那就是该公司有三席董事必须由总统指定,并经参议院同意,依法每年还须提供年度报告给总统,

超过260个美国大企业,非以营利为出发点,集资四千二百万成立两个合伙组织,透过与房屋使用者合伙形式,由政府补助租赁房屋,典型的合伙是持有一个房地产单位,附带一个抵押贷款,大部分的资金来源系由一群有租税减免需求的有限合伙人提供,NHP担任一般合伙人并买下所有合伙事业一小部份的出资权,

后来政府房屋计画政策有所转向,所以NHP有必要转型扩展在主流市场-即非补助房屋租赁,此外NHP的一个子公司也在华盛顿特区建造了一个单亲家庭之家,年营业收入五千万美元,NHP目前管理五百个合伙产业,遍布全美四十个州、哥伦比亚特区与波多黎各,总计有八万个家庭户数,这些产业的总值超过25亿美元,同时管理相当良好,NHP直接管理其中五万五千户,其余透过监督方式进行,公司管理的收入每年约一千六百万美元,而且还在持续成长中

除了公司所投资的部份合伙事业的权益,NHP在产业处分后也可分得部份利益,虽然部份补助较多的产业无利可图,但有些的利润还不错,尤其当通货膨胀高张时,1986年通过的租税改革法案已使这些对于以租税由导向的投资人受到阻断,NHP目前的大方向是好好运用这些合伙权益与非补助租赁产业,强化其质与量,在这类计画中,NHP通常与大型的投资法人合作,NHP会持续寻求各种方法来发展中低收入房屋计画,当然除非政府政策修改,否则以目前情况很难真正成功

除了我们以外,NHP的大股东还有Weyerhauser持有25%的股权,其余则由经营团队与其它60多家大企业持有

税负

1986年通过的租税改革法案对我们旗下许多事业影响的层面非常的广,虽然整体而言我们对于这项法案褒多于贬,但实际上对于Berkshire财务投资来说却是负面的,新制将使得我们企业价值未来的成长率减少几个百分点,对于我们股东的负面影响更大,Berkshire的价值每成长一美元,假设完全反应在公司的股票价格之上,股东在扣除相关税负后真正拿到手的,相较于旧制约有八十美分,新制可能只剩下七十二美分,主要是因为个人资本所得的上限税率由20%调高到28%的缘故,

兹将对Berkshire所有影响列示如下

o企业一般收入的税率由46%减少到34%,这个变化对我们的影响颇为正面,同时包含几个主要的被投资事业资本城/ABC与华盛顿邮报在内

会这样说是基于多年来一直存在在不同政党间,到底是企业或是消费者在支付所得税的争论,这种争论最后通常导致企业税负增加而不是减少,反对调涨税率的一派认为,不管税率有高,企业总是有办法将税负成本转嫁到消费者身上,导致产品价格调高,以弥补税负上的支出,反之调降税率并不会增加企业的获利,而是会使产品价格下跌

另一派则认为企业不但要支付税负,同时还要吸收调涨的税负成本,所以对消费者来说一点影响都没有,

事实到底是怎样呢?当企业税率减少,Berkshire、华盛顿邮报或是资本城公司他们自己真的可能将所有获利放到自己口袋,或是将利益透过降价与客户一起分享吗?这对投资人、经理人或是政策制定者来说,都是一个很重要的问题

最后我们自己得到的结论是部份企业会将减税的利益全部或是大部交到企业与其股东的手上,另一部份的企业则是将利益流到消费者或是客户的身上,主要的关键还在于企业本身的竞争优势与其获利能力是否受到政府管制等因素

举例来说,当强势企业如电力事业,其获利程度受到法规管制,税率调降将直接立即反应在电力价格而非电力公司获利数字之上,反之亦然,虽然调涨的速度较慢,另外像价格竞争激烈的产业也会有同样的结果,这类型的企业通常竞争力薄弱,不得不透过自由竞争市场慢慢地反应到产品价格之上,这种价格反应机制与前面所提的公用电力事业相类似,税负减少对价格的影响,远大于对获利的影响

不过另外一方面,在强势且较不受政府规范的企业,情况就完全相反了,企业与其背后的股东将会是最大的受益者,许多我们百分之百或部份持有的事业都属于此一类型,所有降税的好处最后都落到我们而非消费者的口袋里,虽然这样讲有点冒昧,却很难加以否认,若你一时无法接受这项事实,看看你周围那些名医或是名律师,难道你会认为这些专业人士(也算是个人强势的事业)会因为个人所得税率减少而调降其收费标准吗? 不过大家不要高兴的太早,因为预计在1988年实施的减税方案对我们一点来说有点不太切实际,因为可以预期的是这些减税方案将会造成未来华府的财政困难,进而对物价稳定有严重影响,所以可预期的在未来五年之内,高税率或是高通膨将会再现,且很有可能两者都会同时发生

O企业资本利得税率从1987年起将从原来的28%调高到34%,这种改变对于Berkshire来说将有重大影响,因为我们预期未来被投资企业的价值,如同过去一般会反应在企业的资本利得之上,例如我们主要的三大投资资本城、GEICO与华盛顿邮报,目前总市值已高达17亿美元,约占Berkshire净值的七成五强,但每年反应在公司帐上的收益却只有九百万美元,其余大部分的盈余都保留在公司,继续发挥其投资效益,最终为我们带来大量的资本利得

新法案增加所有未来实现的资本利得税负,包含过去新法修正之前已存在的未实现利益,到年底为止,我们帐上有高达12亿未实现股票投资利得,原来以28%估算预计应付所得税,不久之后,若改成34%的税率,将会使得公司净值减少七千三百万美元,直接加到应付政府的所得税之上,

 

O保险事业收到的股利与利息收入的税负将比过去为重,首先企业从国内公司收到的股利税率将从15%增加到20%,第二是有关产物意外险业者剩下的80%的股利,若股票是在1986年八月以后取得的,还要再加课15%的所得税,第三也是与产物意外险业者相关,也就是在1986年八月以后取得的免税债券,将只有85%的比例可以免税

后面两项的变动非常重要,代表我们在以后年度,投资所得将会比以前旧制来的少,我个人估计影响获利能力约有十个百分点,

O新税法也会大幅影响产物意外险公司支付税负的时点,新规定要求我们在报税时将所提列的损失准备打折,此举将使得我们的课税所得增加,另外在未来六年内,要求我们将20%未赚取的保费列入课税所得中,

虽然两者并不影响报表中应付所得税的数字,但却都会大幅加速我们支付税金的时点,意谓过去不必马上支付的税负,现在却都有可能要面临缴纳,这对我们的获利将有相当大的影响,这好比当你21岁成年时,便被要求要对你一生所能赚得的收入预先课税,则你往后一辈子个人的财富与身家将会比原来你死时再课税要来的少的多

细心的读者可能会发现一项与我们先前所说不一致的地方,刚刚提到在价格竞争激烈的产业,我们认为税负的增减,只会将变化移转到客户的身上,对公司的获利影响有限,不过以目前正处在激烈竞争的产物意外险业来说,税负的增加直接影响的却是公司的获利能力,主要原因在于并非所有的保险业者都适用同样的税法规定,由于一些公司先前帐上有相当大的亏损可供往后年度的获利扣抵,有一些则因为并进亏损的非保险部门享有租税上优惠,使得不同产险公司的实际税率不一而足,这与其它价格竞争激烈的产业,诸如汽车、铝业、百货业,主要竞争对手税率差异不大的情况,完全不一样,

税负成本基础不一,导致差异无法完全反应到客户的身上,保险公司本身必须吸收部份的税务负担,另外部份负担可被"fresh start"所吸收,虽然当我们在1986年提列的损失准备,依照新税法规定,在1987年认列时将被打折,(当然在给各位的财务报告上的数字仍维持不变) ,不过由于重复扣抵的结果,将会使得净影响数较以前增加

这项净值增加的影响尚未反应在年度的资产负债表上,依照现行的一般公认会计原则,这项影响数将会陆续反应在未来的损益表的减税利益上,我们预期这项重新的调整将会使得公司净值增加三、四千万美元,不过须特别注意的是,这种优惠只是一时的,不过其它不利的税负增加却是永久的,

公用事业原则在新税法实施后将被取消,意思是说在1987年以后,对于企业的清算其税负将加倍,一个是在企业阶段,一则是在股东个人阶段,在过去企业阶段的税负可透过适当方法予以规避,举例来说,假设今天我们把Berkshire清算,(当然这是不可能的事) ,在新制之下,公司股东所能收到的清算收入,将比过去旧制时代少了很多,虽然这只是假设,但事实上却影响到许多准备清算的公司,同样也会影响我们对投资标的的评估,如石油业、媒体业、或不动产业等等,虽然公司实际经营状况并没有多大改变,但其处分价值却因税法的修订而有极大的变动,

个人认为一般投资人或基金经理人可能尚未完全了解其严重性,虽然我不爱提,但我还是必须向各位报告以上复杂难解的内容,总之我只能说新法对Berkshire来说,绝对会有不利的影响,至于详细的数字是多少,以目前的情况实在很难详细的估算

其它事项

去年公司新添购了一架飞机,没错一架对很少到远处旅行的我们来说,算是相当昂贵且豪华的飞机,这架飞机不仅所费不贷,还要花许多钱在保养之上,一架1,500万美元的新飞机,每年光是帐上的资金成本与折旧提列就要三百万美金,比起先前那架85万美元二手飞机,每年只会产生二十万美元的费用,确实有极大的差别,虽然充分了解其中的差异,不幸地你们的主席还是对于企业专用飞机发表了许多不当的言论,因此在购买之前,我不得已暂时变身成为伽利略,突然间得到一项反启示,原来旅行可以比过去来的容易多了,只是也变得比过去更贵了,到底Berkshire会不会因为这架飞机而受益,目前尚无定论,但我个人一定会将部份企业的成功因素归诸于它(不管别人如何地怀疑) ,我很害怕富兰克林打电话告诉我说,没错!人类身为一种有理性的动物实在是太方便了,只要他想要做的,随时可以找一个理由来解释它

大约有97%的股东参加了去年的股东指定捐赠计画,透过这项计画去年我们总共捐出了四百万美元给1,934个不同的慈善团体机构,我们促请新加入的股东赶快看一看相关的计画,若你在未来年度也想要参加,务必确认将股份登记在自己而非信托公司的名下

去年总计有450位股东参加年度的股东会,(去年约有250位,十年前则只有十几位) ,我很期望各位在五月十九日都能到奥玛哈来参加今年的股东会,查理与我会很乐意为各位回答所有有关公司经营的问题,去年所有股东总共提了65个问题,其中有许多相当好的意见,去年股东会结束后,两位分别来自纽泽西与纽约的股东到内布拉斯加家具店花了五千元向B太太各买了一套市价一万元的地毯,B太太相当高兴但却不甚满意,所以今年股东会后,B太太将在店内等待各位,希望各位能够打败去年的记录,否则我可能会有麻烦,所以各位请帮帮忙,不要忘了顺道去看看她

一九八七                                                                                             Our gain in net worth during 1987 was $464 million, or 19.5%. Over the last 23 years (that is, since present management took over), our per-share book value has grown from $19.46 to $2,477.47, or at a rate of 23.1% compounded annually.

本公司在1978年的净值增加了四亿六千四百万,较去年增加了19.5%,而过去23年以来(自从现有经营阶层接手后),每股净值从19元成长到现在的2,477美元,年复合成长率约为23.1%。

What counts, of course, is the rate of gain in per-share business value, not book value. In many cases, a corporation's book value and business value are almost totally unrelated. For example, just before they went bankrupt, LTV and Baldwin-United published yearend audits showing their book values to be $652 million and $397 million, respectively. Conversely, Belridge Oil was sold to Shell in 1979 for $3.6 billion although its book value was only $177 million.

真正重要的当然是企业每股实际价值,而非帐面价值的增加,在许多情况下一家公司的帐面与其实际价值一点关连都没有,举例来说,LTV与鲍德温联合公司就在宣布破产之前的会计师签证的年度报告还显示,帐面各有净值六亿与四亿美金,但是另一个公司Belridge石油在1979年以36亿美元高价卖给壳牌石油之时,帐面净值却不到两亿。

At Berkshire, however, the two valuations have tracked rather closely, with the growth rate in business value over the last decade moderately outpacing the growth rate in book value. This good news continued in 1987.

不过在波克夏两者成长的趋势倒是蛮相近的,过去十年公司的实际价值成长率略高于帐面价值成长率,很高兴这种好现象在今年也能持续维持。

Our premium of business value to book value has widened for two simple reasons: We own some remarkable businesses and they are run by even more remarkable managers.

我们企业价值对帐面价值的差距,因为以下二个简单的原因又扩大了一点,一是我们拥有优秀的企业,一是这些企业皆由最优秀的经理人在管理。各位有理由对第二个原因表示意见,因为一家企业的总经理很少会告诉公司股东说,你们所投资的公司是由一群笨蛋组成的经营阶层来管理,而也就是为了要避免露出马脚,所以常常使得一些公司常常会出现相当诡异的财务报表

You have a right to question that second assertion. After all, CEOs seldom tell their shareholders that they have assembled a bunch of turkeys to run things. Their reluctance to do so makes for some strange annual reports. Oftentimes, in his shareholders' letter, a CEO will go on for pages detailing corporate performance that is woefully inadequate. He will nonetheless end with a warm paragraph describing his managerial comrades as "our most precious asset." Such comments sometimes make you wonder what the other assets can possibly be.

通常在致股东的报告中,CEO会花一大篇幅详细描述过去企业的表现是如何的不当,最后不可免俗地会以感性的语气来形容其所带领的公司干部实在是公司最珍贵的资产,这种形容有时会让人搞不清楚那其它的资产到底又算是什么?

At Berkshire, however, my appraisal of our operating managers is, if anything, understated. To understand why, first take a look at page 7, where we show the earnings (on an historical-cost accounting basis) of our seven largest non-financial units: Buffalo News, Fechheimer, Kirby, Nebraska Furniture Mart, Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group, See's Candies, and World Book. In 1987, these seven business units had combined operating earnings before interest and taxes of $180 million.

不过在波克夏,我个人对于管理干部任何的称赞都是很容易让人理解的,首先请看看第七页,显示本公司七个非金融业的主要企业-水牛城报纸、费区海默西服、寇比吸尘器、内布拉斯加家具、史考特飞兹集团、喜斯糖果与世界百科全书的获利状况(以历史成本会计基础),1987年这七家公司的年度在扣除利息与所得税前的获利高达一亿八千万美元

By itself, this figure says nothing about economic performance. To evaluate that, we must know how much total capital - debt and equity - was needed to produce these earnings. Debt plays an insignificant role at our seven units: Their net interest expense in 1987 was only $2 million. Thus, pre-tax earnings on the equity capital employed by these businesses amounted to $178 million. And this equity - again on an historical-cost basis - was only $175 million.

单独这数字本身并不足以说明其特殊性,但若你知道他们利用多少资金就达到这项成果时,你就知道他们是如何地了不起了,事实上这些公司的负债比例都非常的低,去年的利息费用总共加起来也不过只有二百万美元,所以合计税前获利一亿七千八百万,而帐列的历史投资股本竟只有一亿七千五百万!

If these seven business units had operated as a single company, their 1987 after-tax earnings would have been approximately $100 million - a return of about 57% on equity capital. You'll seldom see such a percentage anywhere, let alone at large, diversified companies with nominal leverage. Here's a benchmark: In its 1988 Investor's Guide issue, Fortune reported that among the 500 largest industrial companies and 500 largest service companies, only six had averaged a return on equity of over 30% during the previous decade. The best performer among the 1000 was Commerce Clearing House at 40.2%.

若把这七家公司视作是单一个体公司,则税后净利约为一亿美元,股东权益投资报酬率更将高达57%,即使财务杠杆再高,你也很难在一般公司看到这种比率,根据财星杂志在1988年出版的投资人手册,在全美五百大制造业与五百大服务业中,只有六家公司过去十年的股东权益报酬率超过30%,最高的一家也不过只有40.2%。

Of course, the returns that Berkshire earns from these seven units are not as high as their underlying returns because, in aggregate, we bought the businesses at a substantial premium to underlying equity capital. Overall, these operations are carried on our books at about $222 million above the historical accounting values of the underlying assets. However, the managers of the units should be judged by the returns they achieve on the underlying assets; what we pay for a business does not affect the amount of capital its manager has to work with. (If, to become a shareholder and part owner of Commerce Clearing House, you pay, say, six times book value, that does not change CCH's return on equity.)

当然Berkshire真正从这些公司赚得的报酬并没有那么地高,因为当初买下这些公司时,支付了相当的溢价才取得这些股份,经过统计我们在这些公司原始投资超过其帐列的股权净值的溢价金额约为二亿二千二百万美元,当然要判断这些公司经理人的绩效应该是要看他们创造的盈余是靠多少资产所产生的,至于我们用多少钱买下这些公司与经理人的绩效并无关联,就算你用高于净值六倍的价钱买下一家公司,同样也不会影响该公司的股东权益报酬率。

Three important inferences can be drawn from the figures I have cited. First, the current business value of these seven units is far above their historical book value and also far above the value at which they are carried on Berkshire's balance sheet. Second, because so little capital is required to run these businesses, they can grow while concurrently making almost all of their earnings available for deployment in new opportunities. Third, these businesses are run by truly extraordinary managers. The Blumkins, the Heldmans, Chuck Huggins, Stan Lipsey, and Ralph Schey all meld unusual talent, energy and character to achieve exceptional financial results.

以上所提数字代表着三项重要的指针,首先现在这七家企业的真正价值远高于其帐面净值,同样也远高于Berkshire帐列的投资成本,第二因为经营这些事业并不需要太多的资金,所以这些公司利用所赚取的盈余便足以支应本身业务的发展,第三这些事业都由非常能干的经理人在经营,像是Blumkins家族、Heldmans、Chuck Huggins、Stan Lipsey与Ralph Schey皆兼具才干、精力与品格,将旗下事业经营的有声有色。

For good reasons, we had very high expectations when we joined with these managers. In every case, however, our experience has greatly exceeded those expectations. We have received far more than we deserve, but we are willing to accept such inequities. (We subscribe to the view Jack Benny expressed upon receiving an acting award: "I don't deserve this, but then, I have arthritis and I don't deserve that either.")

也因此当初这些明星经理人加入时,我们并抱持着极高的期待,事后证明得到的结果远高于预期,我们获得远高于我们所应得的,当然我们很乐意接受这样不公平的对待,我们借用杰克班尼在获得最佳男主角时的感言:「我不应该得到这个奖项,但同样地我也不应该得到关节炎。」

Beyond the Sainted Seven, we have our other major unit, insurance, which I believe also has a business value well above the net assets employed in it. However, appraising the business value of a property-casualty insurance company is a decidedly imprecise process. The industry is volatile, reported earnings oftentimes are seriously inaccurate, and recent changes in the Tax Code will severely hurt future profitability. Despite these problems, we like the business and it will almost certainly remain our largest operation. Under Mike Goldberg's management, the insurance business should treat us well over time.

除了这七个圣徒之外,我们还有一项主要的事业-保险,同样地我也认为它的价值远高于其帐列的资产,只是要评估一家产物意外险公司的价值就没有办法那么明确了,这个产业变动很大,报表所列的获利数字有时会有很大的偏差,而且最近税法修正对我们未来年度的获利有很大的影响,尽管如此保险事业仍会是我们经营事业的最大重心,在Mike Goldberg的管理之下,保险事业的报酬仍可期待。

With managers like ours, my partner, Charlie Munger, and I have little to do with operations. in fact, it is probably fair to say that if we did more, less would be accomplished. We have no corporate meetings, no corporate budgets, and no performance reviews (though our managers, of course, oftentimes find such procedures useful at their operating units). After all, what can we tell the Blumkins about home furnishings, or the Heldmans about uniforms?

有这些优秀的专业经理人,在事业的日常营运上,查理孟格跟我实在是没有什么好费心思的地方,事实上,平心而论我们管的越多,可能只会把事情搞砸,在Berkshire我们没有企业会议,也没有年度预算,更没有绩效考核 (当然各个企业单位因应自身所需,有自己的一套管理办法) ,但总的来说,我们实在没有什么可以告诉指导Blumkin如何去卖家具事业或是指导Heldman家族如何经营制服事业。

Our major contribution to the operations of our subsidiaries is applause. But it is not the indiscriminate applause of a Pollyanna. Rather it is informed applause based upon the two long careers we have spent intensively observing business performance and managerial behavior. Charlie and I have seen so much of the ordinary in business that we can truly appreciate a virtuoso performance. Only one response to the 1987 performance of our operating managers is appropriate: sustained, deafening applause.

我们对于这些所属事业单位最重要的支持就是适时地给予掌声,但这绝对不是在做烂好人,相反地这是长久下来我们深入观察这些企业的经营结果与管理当局的作为所给予的正面肯定,我们两个人这些年来看过太多平庸企业的表现,所以我们是真正地珍惜他们艺术级的演出,对于1987年旗下子公司整体的表现,我们只能报以热烈的掌声,而且是震耳欲聋的掌声。

Sources of Reported Earnings

盈余的来源

下表显示Berkshire主要盈余的来源,其中商誉的摊销与购买法的会计调整数,特别从各个企业挑出汇总成单独一栏,事实上这样的目的是为了让旗下事业的经营绩效,不因我们买下他们而有所影响,在1983与1986年的年报中,我已不只一次的解释这样的表达方式会比依照一般公认会计原则更符合管理当局与投资者的需要,当然最后加总结算的数字,还是会与会计师出具的财务报表上的盈余数字完全一致。

The table on the following page shows the major sources of Berkshire's reported earnings. In the table, amortization of Goodwill and other major purchase-price accounting adjustments are not charged against the specific businesses to which they apply but, instead, are aggregated and shown separately. In effect, this procedure presents the earnings of our businesses as they would have been reported had we not purchased them. In appendixes to my letters in the 1983 and 1986 annual reports, I explained why this form of presentation seems to us to be more useful to investors and managers than the standard GAAP presentation, which makes purchase-price adjustments on a business-by business basis. The total net earnings we show in the table are, of course, identical to the GAAP figures in our audited financial statements. In the Business Segment Data on pages 36-38 and in the Management's Discussion section on pages 40-44 you will find much additional information about our businesses. In these sections you will also find our segment earnings reported on a GAAP basis. I urge you to read that material, as well as Charlie Munger's letter to Wesco shareholders, describing the various businesses of that subsidiary, which starts on page 45.

在后面的部门别信息中,大家可以找到个别事业的详细信息,除此之外,我也强烈建议大家一定要看查理写给Wesco股东叙述其旗下事业情况的一封信


 
 
 
 
1987
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Percent
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Underwriting
 
 
 
 
 
(55,429)
 
 
 
(20,696)
 

Net Investment Income
 
 
 
 
 
152,483
 
 
 
136,658
 

Associated Retail Stores
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Berkshire-Waumbec Textiles
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Blue Chip Stamps-Parent
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Buffalio News
 
 
 
 
 
39,410
 
 
 
21,304
 

Fechheimer
 
 
 
 
 
13,332
 
 
 
6,580
 

Illinois National Bank
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Kirby
 
 
 
 
 
22,408
 
 
 
12,891
 

Mutual Savings and Loan
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
 
 
 
 
16,837
 
 
 
7,554
 

Presion Steel
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Scott Fetzer-Diversified
 
 
 
 
 
30,591
 
 
 
17,555
 

See's Candies
 
 
 
 
 
31,693
 
 
 
17,363
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
 
 
 
 
6,209
 
 
 
4,978
 

World Book
 
 
 
 
 
25,745
 
 
 
15,136
 

Amortization of Goodwill
 
 
 
 
 
(2,862)
 
 
 
(2,862)
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
 
 
(11,474)
 
 
 
(5,905)
 

Shareholder's Contribution
 
 
 
 
 
(4,938)
 
 
 
(2,963)
 

Other
 
 
 
 
 
16,914
 
 
 
7,152
 

 
 
 
 
0
 
280,919
 
 
 
214,745
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
 
 
 
 
27,319
 
 
 
19,807
 

Total Earnings-all entities
 
 
 
0
 
308,238
 
 
 
234,552
 

 

Gypsy Rose Lee在她晚年的一场生日宴会上宣布:「我还是拥有去年所有的一切,现在唯一的差别是全部都矮了两吋。」如同本表所示,在1987年几乎我们所有的事业都又成长的一岁。

Gypsy Rose Lee announced on one of her later birthdays: "I have everything I had last year; it's just that it's all two inches lower." As the table shows, during 1987 almost all of our businesses aged in a more upbeat way.

我们旗下这些事业实在是没有什么新的变化可以特别提出报告的,所谓没有消息就是好消息,剧烈的变动通常不会有特别好的绩效,当然这与大部分的投资人认为的刚好相反,大家通常将最高的本益比给予那些擅长画大饼的企业,这些美好的远景会让投资人不顾现实经营的情况,而一昧幻想未来可能的获利美梦,对于这种爱做梦的投资人来说,任何路边的野花,都会比邻家的女孩来的具吸引力,不管后者是如何贤慧。

There's not a lot new to report about these businesses - and that's good, not bad. Severe change and exceptional returns usually don't mix. Most investors, of course, behave as if just the opposite were true. That is, they usually confer the highest price-earnings ratios on exotic-sounding businesses that hold out the promise of feverish change. That prospect lets investors fantasize about future profitability rather than face today's business realities. For such investor-dreamers, any blind date is preferable to one with the girl next door, no matter how desirable she may be.

经验显示,能够创造盈余新高的企业,现在做生意的方式通常与其五年前甚至十年前没有多大的差异,当然管理当局绝对不能够太过自满,因为企业总有不断的机会可以改善本身的服务、产品线、制造能力等等,且绝对必须要好好把握,不过一家公司若是为了改变而改变,反而可能增加犯错的机会,讲的更深入一点,在一块动荡不安的土地之上,是不太可能建造一座固若金汤的城堡,而具有这样稳定特质的企业却是持续创造高获利的关键。

Experience, however, indicates that the best business returns are usually achieved by companies that are doing something quite similar today to what they were doing five or ten years ago. That is no argument for managerial complacency. Businesses always have opportunities to improve service, product lines, manufacturing techniques, and the like, and obviously these opportunities should be seized. But a business that constantly encounters major change also encounters many chances for major error. Furthermore, economic terrain that is forever shifting violently is ground on which it is difficult to build a fortress-like business franchise. Such a franchise is usually the key to sustained high returns.

先前提到财星杂志的研究,可以充分支持我的论点,在1977年到1986年间,总计1,000家中只有25家能够达到连续十年平均股东权益报酬率达到20%的标准,且没有一年低于15%的双重标准,而这些优质企业同时也是股票市场上的宠儿,在所有的25家中有24家的表现超越S&P500指数。

The Fortune study I mentioned earlier supports our view. Only 25 of the 1,000 companies met two tests of economic excellence - an average return on equity of over 20% in the ten years, 1977 through 1986, and no year worse than 15%. These business superstars were also stock market superstars: During the decade, 24 of the 25 outperformed the S&P 500.

这些财富之星可能让你大开眼界,首先相对于本身支付利息的能力,他们所运用的财务杠杆极其有限,一家真正好的公司是不需要借钱的,第二除了有一家是所谓的高科技公司,另外少数几家属于制药业以外,大多数的公司产业相当平凡普通,大部分现在销售的产品或服务与十年前大致相同,(虽然数量或是价格、或是两者都有,比以前高很多),这些公司的记录显示,充分运用现有产业地位,或是专注在单一领导的产品品牌之上通常是创造企业暴利的不二法门。

The Fortune champs may surprise you in two respects. First, most use very little leverage compared to their interest-paying capacity. Really good businesses usually don't need to borrow. Second, except for one company that is "high-tech" and several others that manufacture ethical drugs, the companies are in businesses that, on balance, seem rather mundane. Most sell non-sexy products or services in much the same manner as they did ten years ago (though in larger quantities now, or at higher prices, or both). The record of these 25 companies confirms that making the most of an already strong business franchise, or concentrating on a single winning business theme, is what usually produces exceptional economics.

事实上我们在Berkshire的经验正是如此,我们的专业经理人所以能够缔造优异的成绩,所从事的业务相当平凡,但重点是把它们做到极致,经理人致力于保护企业本身、控制成本,基于现有能力寻找新产品与新市场来巩固既有优势,他们从不受外界诱惑,钜细靡遗地专注于企业之上,而其成绩有目共睹。

Berkshire's experience has been similar. Our managers have produced extraordinary results by doing rather ordinary things - but doing them exceptionally well. Our managers protect their franchises, they control costs, they search for new products and markets that build on their existing strengths and they don't get diverted. They work exceptionally hard at the details of their businesses, and it shows.

以下是近况报导

Here's an update:

克里思蒂小姐嫁给一位考古学家,她曾说︰「配偶最理想的职业就是考古学家,因为你越老,他就越有兴趣」,事实上应该是商学院而非考古学系的学生,需要多多研究B太太-这位NFM高龄94岁的负责人。

o Agatha Christie, whose husband was an archaeologist, said that was the perfect profession for one's spouse: "The older you become, the more interested they are in you." It is students of business management, not archaeologists, who should be interested in Mrs. B (Rose Blumkin), the 94-year-old chairman of Nebraska Furniture Mart.

五十年以前B太太以五百块美金创业,到如今NFM已是全美远近驰名的家具量贩店,但是B太太还是一样从早到晚,一个礼拜工作七天,掌管采购、销售与管理,我很确定她现在正蓄势待发,准备在未来的五到十年内,全力冲刺再创高峰,也因此我已说服董事会取消一百岁强迫退休的年龄上限,(也该是时候了,随着时光的流逝,越来我越相信这个规定是该修改了)

Fifty years ago Mrs. B started the business with $500, and today NFM is far and away the largest home furnishings store in the country. Mrs. B continues to work seven days a week at the job from the opening of each business day until the close. She buys, she sells, she manages - and she runs rings around the competition. It's clear to me that she's gathering speed and may well reach her full potential in another five or ten years. Therefore, I've persuaded the Board to scrap our mandatory retirement-at-100 policy. (And it's about time: With every passing year, this policy has seemed sillier to me.)

去年(1987年) NFM的销货净额是一亿四千多万美元,较前一年度成长8%,这是全美独一无二的一家店,也是全美独一无二的家族,B太太跟她三个儿子拥有天生的生意头脑、品格与冲劲,且分工合作,团结一致。

Net sales of NFM were $142.6 million in 1987, up 8% from 1986. There's nothing like this store in the country, and there's nothing like the family Mrs. B has produced to carry on: Her son Louie, and his three boys, Ron, Irv and Steve, possess the business instincts, integrity and drive of Mrs. B. They work as a team and, strong as each is individually, the whole is far greater than the sum of the parts.

B太太家族的杰出表现,不但让身为股东的我们受益良多,NFM的客户们更受惠更大,只要选择NFM的产品据估计光是1987年就可省下至少三千万美元,换句话说若客户到别处去买可能要贵上这么多钱。

The superb job done by the Blumkins benefits us as owners, but even more dramatically benefits NFM's customers. They saved about $30 million in 1987 by buying from NFM. In other words, the goods they bought would have cost that much more if purchased elsewhere.

去年我接到一封无名氏所写的相当有趣的信︰「很遗憾看到Berkshire第二季的获利下滑,想要提高 贵公司的获利吗? 有一个不错的法子,去查查NFM的产品售价,你会发现他们把一、两成的获利空间白白奉送给客户,算算一年一亿四千万的营业额,那可是二千八百万的利润,这个数字实在是相当可观,再看看别家家具、地毯或是电器用品的价格,你就会发现把价格调回来是再合理不过了.谢谢

一位竞争同业留」

You'll enjoy an anonymous letter I received last August: "Sorry to see Berkshire profits fall in the second quarter. One way you may gain back part of your lost. (sic) Check the pricing at The Furniture Mart. You will find that they are leaving 10% to 20% on the table. This additional profit on $140 million of sells (sic) is $28 million. Not small change in anyone's pocket! Check out other furniture, carpet, appliance and T.V. dealers. Your raising prices to a reasonable profit will help. Thank you. /signed/ A Competitor." NFM will continue to grow and prosper by following Mrs. B's maxim: "Sell cheap and tell the truth."

展望未来NFM在B太太「价格公道实在」的座右铭领导下,必将继续成长茁壮。o在全美相同规模(或甚至更大)的报纸中,水牛城报纸有两个特点第一、它在平时与假日的普及率最高(即订户数在该地区家户数的比率),第二是新闻比率最高(新闻版面占总版面的比率)

o Among dominant papers of its size or larger, the Buffalo News continues to be the national leader in two important ways: (1) its weekday and Sunday penetration rate (the percentage of households in the paper's primary market area that purchase it); and (2) its "news-hole" percentage (the portion of the paper devoted to news).

事实上一份报纸能够同时拥有这两项特色绝对不是巧合,因为新闻内容越丰富,也就越能吸引更广泛的读者,从而提高普及率,当然除了量之外,新闻品质也很重要,这不但代表要有好的报导与编辑,也代表要有实时性与关联性,为了让报纸成为读者们不可或缺的东西,它必须能够马上告诉读者许多他们想要知道的事情,而不是等读者们都已知道后,事后报纸才刊登出来。

It may not be coincidence that one newspaper leads in both categories: an exceptionally "newsrich" product makes for broad audience appeal, which in turn leads to high penetration. Of course, quantity must be matched by quality. This not only means good reporting and good writing; it means freshness and relevance. To be indispensable, a paper must promptly tell its readers many things they want to know but won't otherwise learn until much later, if ever.

以水牛城日报来说我们平均每24小时出七个版本,每次内容都会更新,举一个简单的例子就足以让人感到惊奇,光是每天的讣文就会更新七次,也就是说每则新增的讣文会在报纸上连续刊登七个版。

At the News, we put out seven fresh editions every 24 hours, each one extensively changed in content. Here's a small example that may surprise you: We redo the obituary page in every edition of the News, or seven times a day. Any obituary added runs through the next six editions until the publishing cycle has been completed.

当然一份新闻也必须要有有深度的全国与国际性新闻,但一份地区性的报纸也必须及时并广泛地报导社区动态,要把这点做好除了必须要有足够的空间,并加以有效地运用。

It's vital, of course, for a newspaper to cover national and international news well and in depth. But it is also vital for it to do what only a local newspaper can: promptly and extensively chronicle the personally-important, otherwise-unreported details of community life. Doing this job well requires a very broad range of news - and that means lots of space, intelligently used.

如同往年,去年(1987年)我们的新闻比大约是50%,若是我们把这比率砍到一般40%的水准,我们一年约可省下四百万美金的新闻成本,但我们从来都不会考虑如此做,就算哪一天我们的获利大幅缩减也是一样。

Our news hole was about 50% in 1987, just as it has been year after year. If we were to cut it to a more typical 40%, we would save approximately $4 million annually in newsprint costs. That interests us not at all - and it won't interest us even if, for one reason or another, our profit margins should significantly shrink.

基本上查理跟我都不太相信营业预算,像是「间接费用必须缩减,因为预估营业收入不若以往」之类的说法,。如果有一天我们必须降低新闻比率或是牺牲喜斯糖果的品质与服务,以提升疲弱不振的获利表现,或是相反地因为Berkshire太多钱以致现金花不完,就去聘请经济分析师、公关顾问等对公司一点帮助都没有的人。这些做法一点道理都没有,我们完全不了解为何有些公司因为公司赚太多钱就增加一些没有用的人来消化预算,或是因为获利不佳就砍掉一些关键的人事,这种变来变去的方式既不符合人性也不符合商业原则,我们的目标是不论如何都要做对Berkshire的客户与员工有意义的事, (你可能会问那公司专机又是怎么一回事??嗯!我想有时一个人总会有忘了原则的时候)

Charlie and I do not believe in flexible operating budgets, as in "Non-direct expenses can be X if revenues are Y, but must be reduced if revenues are Y - 5%." Should we really cut our news hole at the Buffalo News, or the quality of product and service at See's, simply because profits are down during a given year or quarter? Or, conversely, should we add a staff economist, a corporate strategist, an institutional advertising campaign or something else that does Berkshire no good simply because the money currently is rolling in? That makes no sense to us. We neither understand the adding of unneeded people or activities because profits are booming, nor the cutting of essential people or activities because profitability is shrinking. That kind of yo-yo approach is neither business-like nor humane. Our goal is to do what makes sense for Berkshire's customers and employees at all times, and never to add the unneeded. ("But what about the corporate jet?" you rudely ask. Well, occasionally a man must rise above principle.)

虽然水牛城新闻的营收最近几年只有些微的成长,但在发行人Stan Lipsey杰出的管理之下,获利却反而大幅成长,有好几年我甚至错误地预测该报的获利会下滑,而同样地今年我也不会让大家失望,1988年不管是毛利或者是获利都会缩水,其中新闻印刷成本的飞涨是主要的原因。

Although the News' revenues have grown only moderately since 1984, superb management by Stan Lipsey, its publisher, has produced excellent profit growth. For several years, I have incorrectly predicted that profit margins at the News would fall. This year I will not let vou down: Margins will, without question, shrink in 1988 and profit may fall as well. Skyrocketing newsprint costs will be the major cause. Fechheimer Bros. Company is another of our family businesses - and, like the Blumkins, what a family. Three generations of Heldmans have for decades consistently, built the sales and profits of this manufacturer and distributor of uniforms. In the year that Berkshire acquired its controlling interest in Fechheimer - 1986 - profits were a record. The Heldmans didn't slow down after that. Last year earnings increased substantially and the outlook is good for 1988.

费区海默兄弟公司是我们旗下另一个家族企业,而就像Blumkins一样是个非常杰出的家族,Heldmans家族三代几十年来,努力不懈地建立了这家制服制造与销售公司,而在Berkshire取得所有权的1986年,该公司的获利更创新高,此后Heldmans家族并未停下脚步,去年(1987年)盈余又大幅增加,而展望今年(1988年)前景更是看好。在制服事业大概没有什么出奇的事,唯一的惊奇就是Heldmans家族, Bob、George、Gary、Roger跟Fred,对于这行业熟的不能再熟,同时也乐在其中,我们何其有幸能与他们一起合作共事。

There's nothing magic about the Uniform business; the only magic is in the Heldmans. Bob, George, Gary, Roger and Fred know the business inside and out, and they have fun running it. We are fortunate to be in partnership with them. o Chuck Huggins continues to set new records at See's, just as he has ever since we put him in charge on the day of our purchase some 16 years ago. In 1987, volume hit a new high at slightly Under 25 million pounds. For the second year in a row, moreover, same-store sales, measured in pounds, were virtually unchanged. In case you are wondering, that represents improvement: In each of the previous six years, same-store sales had fallen.

Chuck Huggins持续为喜斯糖果缔造新猷,自从十六年前我们买下这家公司,并请他主掌这项事业时,便一直是如此,在1987年糖果销售量创下近二千五百万英镑的新高,同时连续第二年单店平均营业额维持不坠,你可能会觉得没什么了不起,事实上这已是相当大的改善,因为过去连续六年数字都呈现下滑的趋势。

Although we had a particularly strong 1986 Christmas season, we racked up better store-for-store comparisons in the 1987 Christmas season than at any other time of the year. Thus, the seasonal factor at See's becomes even more extreme. In 1987, about 85% of our profit was earned during December.

虽然1986年的圣诞节特别旺,但1987年的记录比86年还要好,使得季节因素对喜斯糖果来说越来越重要,经统计去年一整年约有85%的获利是在十二月单月所创造的。糖果店是个很好玩的地方,但对大部分的老板来说就不那么有趣了,就我们所知,这几年来除了喜斯赚大钱之外,其它糖果店的经营皆相当惨淡,所以很明显的喜斯搭的并不是顺风车,它的表现是扎扎实实的。

Candy stores are fun to visit, but most have not been fun for their owners. From what we can learn, practically no one besides See's has made significant profits in recent years from the operation of candy shops. Clearly, Chuck's record at See's is not due to a rising industry tide. Rather, it is a one-of-a-kind performance.

这项成就当然需要优秀的产品,这个倒不是问题,因为我们确实拥有,但除此之外它还需要对客户衷心的服务,Chuck可以说是百分之百地为客户设想,而他的态度更直接感染到公司上下所有的员工。

His achievement requires an excellent product - which we have - but it also requires genuine affection for the customer. Chuck is 100% customer-oriented, and his attitude sets the tone for the rest of the See's organization.

以下是一个具体的例证,在喜斯我们通常会定期增添新的口味并删除旧的口味以维持大约一百种组合,去年我们淘汰了14种口味,结果其中有两种让我们的客户无法忘怀,而不断地表达他们对我们这种举动的不满,「愿喜斯所有做出这种卑鄙决定的相关人士嘴巴流脓长疮;愿你们新的巧克力糖在运送途中融化;愿你们吃到酸掉的糖果;愿你们的亏大钱;我们正试图寻求要求你们恢复供应原有口味的法院强制令」,总计最后我们收到好几百封的抱怨信。

Here's an example of Chuck in action: At See's we regularly add new pieces of candy to our mix and also cull a few to keep our product line at about 100 varieties. Last spring we selected 14 items for elimination. Two, it turned out, were badly missed by our customers, who wasted no time in letting us know what they thought of our judgment: "A pox on all in See's who participated in the abominable decision...;" "May your new truffles melt in transit, may they sour in people's mouths, may your costs go up and your profits go down...;" "We are investigating the possibility of obtaining a mandatory injunction requiring you to supply...;" You get the picture. In all, we received many hundreds of letters.

为此Chuck不但重新推出原来的口味,他还将危机化为转机,所有来信的客户都得到完整且诚实的回复,信上是这样写的︰「虽然我们做出错误的决定,但值得庆幸的是最后得以以喜剧收场」,随信还附赠一个特别的小礼物。

Chuck not only reintroduced the pieces, he turned this miscue into an opportunity. Each person who had written got a complete and honest explanation in return. Said Chuck's letter: "Fortunately, when I make poor decisions, good things often happen as a result...;" And with the letter went a special gift certificate. See's increased prices only slightly in the last two years. In 1988 we have raised prices somewhat more, though still moderately. To date, sales have been weak and it may be difficult for See's to improve its earnings this year.

过去两年喜斯糖果仅稍微地涨价,在今年(1988年)我们仍会继续调涨价格,幅度还算合理,只是截至目前为止销售持续低迷,预计今年公司盈余将难再有继续成长的可能性。

o World Book, Kirby, and the Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group are all under the management of Ralph Schey. And what a lucky thing for us that they are. I told you last year that Scott Fetzer performance in 1986 had far exceeded the expectations that Charlie and I had at the time of our purchase. Results in 1987 were even better. Pre-tax earnings rose 10% while average capital employed declined significantly.

世界百科全书、寇比吸尘器与史考特费兹制造集团皆由Ralph所领导,很高兴我们能做这样的安排,去年我曾告诉各位史考特费兹集团在我们买下公司的当年度-1986年的表现超乎预期,但去年1987年的表现更出色,税前获利成长了10%,但所耗费的资金却较前年大幅缩减。

Ralph's mastery of the 19 businesses for which he is responsible is truly amazing, and he has also attracted some outstanding managers to run them. We would love to find a few additional units that could be put under Ralph's wing.

Ralph同时掌管19项事业的方式实在是令人叹为观止,同时他也吸引了一群优秀的经理人协助他经营事业,我们很乐意在多找一些事业交到Ralph旗下去经营。

The businesses of Scott Fetzer are too numerous to describe in detail. Let's just update you on one of our favorites: At the end of 1987, World Book introduced its most dramatically-revised edition since 1962. The number of color photos was increased from 14,000 to 24,000; over 6,000 articles were revised; 840 new contributors were added. Charlie and I recommend this product to you and your family, as we do World Book's products for younger children, Childcraft and Early World of Learning.

由于史考特费兹的事业范围过于繁杂,在此不便详述,这里谨就其中一项我们的最爱-世界百科全书加以介绍,去年底世界百科全书推出自1962年以来改版最多的最新版本,全套书中的彩色照片从14,000祯增加到24,000祯,超过6,000篇文章从新编写,840位作者参与;查理跟我衷心向您与您的家庭推荐包含世界百科全书与儿童工艺等一系列的套书。

In 1987, World Book unit sales in the United States increased for the fifth consecutive year. International sales and profits also grew substantially. The outlook is good for Scott Fetzer operations in aggregate, and for World Book in particular.

在去年该套书在美国地区销售量连续第五年成长,国外地区的销量与获利亦大幅增加,史考特费兹集团前景看好,尤其世界百科全书更是如此。

Insurance Operations

保险事业营运

Shown below is an updated version of our usual table presenting key figures for the insurance industry:

下表是我们惯用保险业主要指数的最近更新数字


 
 
 
 
Yearly Change in
 
Combined Ratio
 
Yearly Change in
 
GNP Deflators
 

 
 
 
 
Premiums Written
 
 
 
Incurred Loss
 

1981
 
 
 
3.8%
 
106.0%
 
 
 
6.5%
 
9.7%
 

1982
 
 
 
4.4%
 
109.8%
 
 
 
8.4%
 
6.4%
 

1983
 
 
 
4.6%
 
112.0%
 
 
 
6.8%
 
3.9%
 

1984
 
 
 
9.2%
 
117.9%
 
 
 
16.9%
 
3.8%
 

1985
 
 
 
22.1%
 
116.5%
 
 
 
16.1%
 
3.3%
 

1986
 
(Rev.)
 
22.2%
 
108.0%
 
 
 
13.5%
 
2.6%
 

1987
 
(Est.)
 
8.7%
 
104.7%
 
 
 
6.8%
 
3.0%
 

 

综合比率代表所有保险成本(发生损失加上费用)占保费收入的比率,一百以下表示有承保的获利,一百以上则有承保的损失,若考量保险公司利用保费收入(浮存金)所赚取的投资收益列入计算,则107到111之间大约是损益两平点,当然这是不包含公司自有资金所运用的收益。

The combined ratio represents total insurance costs (losses incurred plus expenses) compared to revenue from premiums: A ratio below 100 indicates an underwriting profit, and one above 100 indicates a loss. When the investment income that an insurer earns from holding on to policyholders' funds ("the float") is taken into account, a combined ratio in the 107-111 range typically produces an overall break-even result, exclusive of earnings on the funds provided by shareholders.

保险事业的数字,若以上面那张简表来说明,事实上并不会太复杂,当同业平均保费收入年成长只在4%或5%徘徊,则当年承保损失一定会上升,原因不在于车祸、火灾、暴风等意外事件发生更频繁,也不是因为一般通货膨胀的关系。主要的祸首在于今天社会与司法过度膨胀,法律诉讼费用暴增,一方面是因为诉讼更频繁,一方面是由于陪审团与法官倾向扩大保险单上的保险理赔范围,若这种乱象不能加以抑止,则保险公司每年至少要有10%以上的保费收入年成长,才有办法收支打平,即使在通货膨胀相对温和的状况下也是如此。

The math of the insurance business, encapsulated by the table, is not very complicated. In years when the industry's annual gain in revenues (premiums) pokes along at 4% or 5%, underwriting losses are sure to mount. That is not because auto accidents, fires, windstorms and the like are occurring more frequently, nor has it lately been the fault of general inflation. Today, social and judicial inflation are the major culprits; the cost of entering a courtroom has simply ballooned. Part of the jump in cost arises from skyrocketing verdicts, and part from the tendency of judges and juries to expand the coverage of insurance policies beyond that contemplated by the insurer when the policies were written. Seeing no let-up in either trend, we continue to believe that the industry's revenues must grow at about 10% annually for it to just hold its own in terms of profitability, even though general inflation may be running at a considerably lower rate.

过去三年来保费收入的大幅成长几乎可以确定今年同业的绩效都会相当不错,事实证明也是如此,不过接下来的情况可就不太妙了,根据Best's统计预估, 1988年的每季的成长率将由12.9%按季逐渐下滑至11.1%、5.7%、5.6%,可以确定的是1988年的保费成长一定会低于10%的损益两平点,很明显的好日子已经不多了。

The strong revenue gains of 1985-87 almost guaranteed the industry an excellent underwriting performance in 1987 and, indeed, it was a banner year. But the news soured as the quarters rolled by: Best's estimates that year-over-year volume increases were 12.9%, 11.1%, 5.7%, and 5.6%. In 1988, the revenue gain is certain to be far below our 10% "equilibrium" figure. Clearly, the party is over.

然而盈余数字却不会马上滑落,这个产业具有递延的现象,因为大部分的保单都是一年期,所以对于损益的影响会在往后的一年之间陆续浮现,因此打个比方,在party结束、酒吧关门之前,你还可以把手上的那杯喝完了再走,假设往后几年没有发生什么天灾地变,我们预期1988年的同业平均综合比率将会微幅上扬,紧接下来的几年则会大幅攀升。

However, earnings will not immediately sink. A lag factor exists in this industry: Because most policies are written for a one-year term, higher or lower insurance prices do not have their full impact on earnings until many months after they go into effect. Thus, to resume our metaphor, when the party ends and the bar is closed, you are allowed to finish your drink. If results are not hurt by a major natural catastrophe, we predict a small climb for the industry's combined ratio in 1988, followed by several years of larger increases.

保险业最近受到几项不利的经济因素所困而前景黯淡,数以百计的竞争对手、进入障碍低、无法大幅差异化的产品特性,在这种类似商品型产业之中,只有营运成本低的公司或是一些受到保护的利基产品才有可能有长期获利成长的机会。

The insurance industry is cursed with a set of dismal economic characteristics that make for a poor long-term outlook: hundreds of competitors, ease of entry, and a product that cannot be differentiated in any meaningful way. In such a commodity-like business, only a very low-cost operator or someone operating in a protected, and usually small, niche can sustain high profitability levels.

当产品供给短缺时,即使是商品化产业也能蓬勃发展,不过在保险业界,这种好日子早就已经过去了,资本主义最讽刺的地方就是商品型产业大部分的经理人都痛恨商品短缺不足,但偏偏这是唯一可能让这些公司有获利的机会,当短缺出现时,经理人便会迫不及待地想要扩充产能,这无异是将源源不断流入现金的水龙头关掉一样,这就是过去三年保险公司经理人的最佳写照,再次验证Disraeli的名言:「我们唯一从历史得到的教训就是我们从来无法从历史得到教训!」

When shortages exist, however, even commodity businesses flourish. The insurance industry enjoyed that kind of climate for a while but it is now gone. One of the ironies of capitalism is that most managers in commodity industries abhor shortage conditions - even though those are the only circumstances permitting them good returns. Whenever shortages appear, the typical manager simply can't wait to expand capacity and thereby plug the hole through which money is showering upon him. This is precisely what insurance managers did in 1985-87, confirming again Disraeli's observation: "What we learn from history is that we do not learn from history."

在Berkshire,我们努力避免自己的公司成为商品化的企业,首先我们凭借着自己强大的资金实力,来凸显我们产品的不同,但这种效果实在是有限,尤其在个人险的部份,因为即使是其所投保的保险公司倒闭(事实上这种状况还不少),汽车险或或房屋险的购买者仍可获得理赔,在商业险的部份也是如此,当情况好时,许多大企业投保户与保险掮客都不太关心保险业者的财务状况,即使是比较复杂的案件,顶多拖个三、五年,最后还是有办法可以解决, (眼不见为净的结果,可能会让你的口袋落空)

At Berkshire, we work to escape the industry's commodity economics in two ways. First, we differentiate our product by our financial strength, which exceeds that of all others in the industry. This strength, however, is limited in its usefulness. It means nothing in the personal insurance field: The buyer of an auto or homeowners policy is going to get his claim paid even if his insurer fails (as many have). It often means nothing in the commercial insurance arena: When times are good, many major corporate purchasers of insurance and their brokers pay scant attention to the insurer's ability to perform under the more adverse conditions that may exist, say, five years later when a complicated claim is finally resolved. (Out of sight, out of mind - and, later on, maybe out-of-pocket.)

不过一段期间保户会偶尔想起富兰克林所说的空沙包很难站的直挺,并了解寻找一个可靠稳定的保险公司的重要性,这时我们发挥优势的机会就来了,当客户认真想到往后五到十年,若是面对景气不佳同时又碰上金融市场低迷,再保业者倒闭频繁等景象时,而怀疑保险公司是否仍有能力轻松地支付一千万美元理赔金时,那么他可以挑选的保险公司其实是相当有限的,在所有的沙包之中,Berkshire无疑是站得最直挺的一个。

Periodically, however, buyers remember Ben Franklin's observation that it is hard for an empty sack to stand upright and recognize their need to buy promises only from insurers that have enduring financial strength. It is then that we have a major competitive advantage. When a buyer really focuses on whether a $10 million claim can be easily paid by his insurer five or ten years down the road, and when he takes into account the possibility that poor underwriting conditions may then coincide with depressed financial markets and defaults by reinsurer, he will find only a few companies he can trust. Among those, Berkshire will lead the pack. Our second method of differentiating ourselves is the total indifference to volume that we maintain. In 1989, we will be perfectly willing to write five times as much business as we write in 1988 - or only one-fifth as much. We hope, of course, that conditions will allow us large volume. But we cannot control market prices. If they are unsatisfactory, we will simply do very little business. No other major insurer acts with equal restraint.

我们第二个方法是试着让我们完全不理会签发保单的数量,在下一个年度我们很愿意一口气签出比前一年多五倍的保单,但若是只能签发五分之一的保单也无所谓,当然情况若许可我们希望是越多越好,但我们实在是无法掌握市场价格,若价格不理想,我们就会暂时退出市场少做一点生意,在同业中再没有其它任何一家保险公司有我们如此高的自制力。

Three conditions that prevail in insurance, but not in most businesses, allow us our flexibility. First, market share is not an important determinant of profitability: In this business, in contrast to the newspaper or grocery businesses, the economic rule is not survival of the fattest. Second, in many sectors of insurance, including most of those in which we operate, distribution channels are not proprietary and can be easily entered: Small volume this year does not preclude huge volume next year. Third, idle capacity - which in this industry largely means people - does not result in intolerable costs. In a way that industries such as printing or steel cannot, we can operate at quarter-speed much of the time and still enjoy long-term prosperity.

在保险业普遍存在的第三种情况,(这在其它产业并不多见)使得我们能保持相当的弹性,第一市场占有率并不绝对等于获利率,不像新闻业或是零售业,最后能够存活的不一定是最肥的那个人,第二许多的保险类种,其中也包含我们所从事的主要险种,销售通路并非只有唯一管道,所以进入障碍低,今年业绩不多,不代表明年就一定会很少,第三闲置的产能,在保险业来说主要是在于人力,这部份并不会造成太大的负担,在印刷或是钢铁业的话就不是如此,我们可以在保持慢速前进的同时,随时蓄势待发准备向前冲刺。

We follow a price-based-on-exposure, not-on-competition policy because it makes sense for our shareholders. But we're happy to report that it is also pro-social. This policy means that we are always available, given prices that we believe are adequate, to write huge volumes of almost any type of property-casualty insurance. Many other insurers follow an in-and-out approach. When they are "out" - because of mounting losses, capital inadequacy, or whatever - we are available. Of course, when others are panting to do business we are also available - but at such times we often find ourselves priced above the market. In effect, we supply insurance buyers and brokers with a large reservoir of standby capacity.

我们完全以价格为导向(而非竞争)来决定我们的风险部位,因为如此对于股东投资者才有意义,但同时我们也很高兴,因为这对社会同样也有助益,这个原则代表我们随时准备就绪,只要市场价格合理,我们愿意随时进场承接任何产物意外险的保单,配合许多保险同业遵循的进出策略,当他们因为损失扩大、资本不足等原因退出市场时,我们随时可以接替,当然当一些同业进来杀价抢食市场时,虽然我们也愿意继续服务大众,但由于我们的报价高于市场价格,所以只好暂时退出观望,基本上我们扮演的是市场供需调节的角色。

One story from mid-1987 illustrates some consequences of our pricing policy: One of the largest family-owned insurance brokers in the country is headed by a fellow who has long been a shareholder of Berkshire. This man handles a number of large risks that are candidates for placement with our New York office. Naturally, he does the best he can for his clients. And, just as naturally, when the insurance market softened dramatically in 1987 he found prices at other insurers lower than we were willing to offer. His reaction was, first, to place all of his business elsewhere and, second, to buy more stock in Berkshire. Had we been really competitive, he said, we would have gotten his insurance business but he would not have bought our stock.

1987年中的一个事件可以充分说明我们的价格政策,在纽约有一家家族经营的保险经纪公司是由一个Berkshire多年资深的老股东所领导,这老兄手上有许多客户是我们所想要交往的,但基于职业道德他仍然必须为他的客户争取到最好的权益,所以当保险市场价格大幅滑落,他发现我们的保费比起其它同业贵了许多时,他第一个反应就是赶快把他客户的保单从Berkshire转移到别的保险公司,接下来第二的动作就是买进更多Berkshire的股票,他说要是那一天Berkshire也一样以降价竞争作为因应,那么他就会把生意给Berkshire做,但他可能就会把Berkshire的股票卖光。

Berkshire's underwriting experience was excellent in 1987, in part because of the lag factor discussed earlier. Our combined ratio (on a statutory basis and excluding structured settlements and financial reinsurance) was 105. Although the ratio was somewhat less favorable than in 1986, when it was 103, our profitability improved materially in 1987 because we had the use of far more float. This trend will continue to run in our favor: Our ratio of float to premium volume will increase very significantly during the next few years. Thus, Berkshire's insurance profits are quite likely to improve during 1988 and 1989, even though we expect our combined ratio to rise.

Berkshire 1987年的承保表现实在是好极了,一方面是因为先前提到的递延效应,我们的综合比率是105(泛指一般保单,不包含私下协议与金融再保部份),虽然这个数字比起1986年的103来说略微逊色,但我们在1987年的获利却由于有更多的浮存金运用而大幅增进,这种好现象将会持续保持,在往后几年我们浮存金对保费收入的比例还是继续增加,所以展望Berkshire1988年与1989年的获利仍将大幅成长,即便综合比率预估亦会增加。

Our insurance business has also made some important non-financial gains during the last few years. Mike Goldberg, its manager, has assembled a group of talented professionals to write larger risks and unusual coverages. His operation is now well equipped to handle the lines of business that will occasionally offer us major opportunities.

我们的保险事业去年在非财务数字面亦有重大的斩获,我们组织了一支训练有素的专业团队,专门承保特殊钜额的风险,他们已准备好帮助我们处理任何可能遇到庞大的商机。

Our loss reserve development, detailed on pages 41-42, looks better this year than it has previously. But we write lots of "long-tail" business - that is, policies generating claims that often take many years to resolve. Examples would be product liability, or directors and officers liability coverages. With a business mix like this, one year of reserve development tells you very little.

有关损失准备提列的情况,详附表,今年的状况比前几年好一点,但由于我们签下了许多长期的生意,许多理赔申请可以要花上好几年才能解决,就像是产品责任保险,或专业经理人责任险,在这种特殊的产业,一年的损失准备其实无法是代表最后结果。

You should be very suspicious of any earnings figures reported by insurers (including our own, as we have unfortunately proved to you in the past). The record of the last decade shows that a great many of our best-known insurers have reported earnings to shareholders that later proved to be wildly erroneous. In most cases, these errors were totally innocent: The unpredictability of our legal system makes it impossible for even the most conscientious insurer to come close to judging the eventual cost of long-tail claims.

大家应该对保险公司的盈余数字时时抱持怀疑的态度,(当然也包含我们公司本身,事实证明确是如此) ,过去十年来的记录显示,有许多显赫一时的保险公司报告给股东亮丽的盈余数字最后证明只不过是一场空,在大部分的情况下,这种错误是无心的,我们诡谲多变的司法制度,使得就算是最有良知的保险公司都无法准确预测这类长期保险的最终成本。

Nevertheless, auditors annually certify the numbers given them by management and in their opinions unqualifiedly state that these figures "present fairly" the financial position of their clients. The auditors use this reassuring language even though they know from long and painful experience that the numbers so certified are likely to differ dramatically from the true earnings of the period. Despite this history of error, investors understandably rely upon auditors' opinions. After all, a declaration saying that "the statements present fairly" hardly sounds equivocal to the non-accountant.

但奇怪的是,会计师每年就是有办法为就这些管理阶层给的数字背书,并出具无保留的意见表示这些数字允当表达该公司,也就是他们的客户的财务状况,而事实上他们自己深知过去惨痛的经验告诉他们,这些经过验证的数字与最后可能结算出来的可能会有天壤之别,但却还是仍然使用这种坚定的语言,而从另一方面来说,就算是历史殷鉴在前,投资人却还是相当仰赖会计师的意见,对于会计门外汉来说,他根本就不懂得「该财务报表允当表达」,所代表的真正含意是什么。

The wording in the auditor's standard opinion letter is scheduled to change next year. The new language represents improvement, but falls far short of describing the limitations of a casualty-insurer audit. If it is to depict the true state of affairs, we believe the standard opinion letter to shareholders of a property-casualty company should read something like: "We have relied upon representations of management in respect to the liabilities shown for losses and loss adjustment expenses, the estimate of which, in turn, very materially affects the earnings and financial condition herein reported. We can express no opinion about the accuracy of these figures. Subject to that important reservation, in our opinion, etc."

会计师标准无保留意见查核报告的遣词用语在明年将有重大改变,新的用语有相当的改进,但还是很难充分说明产物意外险公司在查核时所受到的限制,如果一个人想要描述一件事情的真相,我们认为给产物意外险公司股东的标准无保留意见报告中应这样写︰「我们仰赖管理当局提供损失准备与损失费用调整产生财务报表,而这些估计数字事实上影响公司盈余与财务状况甚巨,受限于损失准备的提列先天信息的不足与我们必须提出的意见,我们完全无法对这些数字的正确性表达看法,等等」

If lawsuits develop in respect to wildly inaccurate financial statements (which they do), auditors will definitely say something of that sort in court anyway. Why should they not be forthright about their role and its limitations from the outset?

假若有人对这种完全不正确的财务报表提出诉讼官司(事实上就有),会计师一定会在法庭上做类似的辩解,那么他们为什么不一开始就坦白地说明他们真实的角色与所受的限制呢??

We want to emphasize that we are not faulting auditors for their inability to accurately assess loss reserves (and therefore earnings). We fault them only for failing to publicly acknowledge that they can't do this job.

我们想要强调的是我们并不是怪罪会计师没有办法准确地评估损失准备 (当然这会影响到最后的盈余数字),我们无法原谅的是他们没有公开地承认做不到这一点。

From all appearances, the innocent mistakes that are constantly made in reserving are accompanied by others that are deliberate. Various charlatans have enriched themselves at the expense of the investing public by exploiting, first, the inability of auditors to evaluate reserve figures and, second, the auditors' willingness to confidently certify those figures as if they had the expertise to do so. We will continue to see such chicanery in the future. Where "earnings" can be created by the stroke of a pen, the dishonest will gather. For them, long-tail insurance is heaven. The audit wording we suggest would at least serve to put investors on guard against these predators.

从各种不同的角度来看,这种不断在提列损失准备时所犯无心的错误,往往也伴随着许多故意的过失,许多骗徒就是看准会计师没有能力评估这些数字,同时又愿意配合为这些数字背书,假装好象他们真的有这个能力,靠着这种方式来欺骗投资大众赚大钱,在往后的日子我们仍将看到这样的骗局持续上演,只要大笔一挥,盈余便可凭空生出,前述我们建议的查核报告措词,至少可以让无知的投资人提高警觉避免遭到这些掠食者的坑杀。

The taxes that insurance companies pay - which increased materially, though on a delayed basis, upon enactment of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 - took a further turn for the worse at the end of 1987. We detailed the 1986 changes in last year's report. We also commented on the irony of a statute that substantially increased 1987 reported earnings for insurers even as it materially reduced both their long-term earnings potential and their business value. At Berkshire, the temporarily-helpful "fresh start" adjustment inflated 1987 earnings by $8.2 million.

去年在年报中详述刚通过的税负改革法案,使得保险公司支付的税负以递延渐进的形式大幅增加,这种情况在1987年更加恶化,讽刺的是虽然这个法案大大地影响到保险公司长期的获利与价值,却让保险公司短期的盈余数字格外亮丽,光是在Berkshire1987年的盈余就增加了八百多万美金。

In our opinion, the 1986 Act was the most important economic event affecting the insurance industry over the past decade. The 1987 Bill further reduced the intercorporate dividends-received credit from 80% to 70%, effective January 1, 1988, except for cases in which the taxpayer owns at least 20% of an investee.

就我们个人的看法,1986年的法案是近十多年来保险业界最重要的经济事件, 1987年的新法案进一步将企业间股利可扣抵的比率由80%减为70%,除非被投资公司有超过20%的股权是由一般投资人所拥有。

Investors who have owned stocks or bonds through corporate intermediaries other than qualified investment companies have always been disadvantaged in comparison to those owning the same securities directly. The penalty applying to indirect ownership was greatly increased by the 1986 Tax Bill and, to a lesser extent, by the 1987 Bill, particularly in instances where the intermediary is an insurance company. We have no way of offsetting this increased level of taxation. It simply means that a given set of pre-tax investment returns will now translate into much poorer after-tax results for our shareholders.

投资人透过中间企业法人(除了专业投资公司外)持有的股份或债券,先天上本来就比直接持有这些有价证券要来的不利的多,尤其是在1986年租税改革法案通过后,这种租税惩罚更为明显,(虽然1987年的情况稍微好转一点,尤其是对保险公司来说),我们没有任何方法可以规避这项增加的税负成本,简而言之,现在同样的税前获利,在扣除税负成本后最后所得到的税后净利,要比过去要来得少的多。

All in all, we expect to do well in the insurance business, though our record is sure to be uneven. The immediate outlook is for substantially lower volume but reasonable earnings improvement. The decline in premium volume will accelerate after our quota-share agreement with Fireman's Fund expires in 1989. At some point, likely to be at least a few years away, we may see some major opportunities, for which we are now much better prepared than we were in 1985.

不论如何,我们的保险事业应该可以做的不错,只是最后的成绩可能无法像过去那么好,目前的展望是保费收入将减少,尤其是消防人员基金在1989年到期后,但盈余可略微改善,之后我们可能可以再遇到好机会,不过那可能要好几年以后,届时我们应该可以作好更万全的准备。

Marketable Securities - Permanent Holdings

有价证券-永恒的持股

每当查理跟我为Berkshire旗下的保险公司买进股票(扣除套利交易,后面会再详述),我们采取的态度就好象是我们买下的是一家私人企业一样,我们着重于这家公司的经济前景、经营阶层以及我们支付的价格,我们从来就没有考虑再把这些股份卖出,相反地只要能够预期这家公司的价值能够稳定地增加,我们愿意无限期地持有这些股份,在投资时我们从不把自己当作是市场的分析师、总体经济分析师或是证券分析师,而是企业的分析师。

Whenever Charlie and I buy common stocks for Berkshire'sinsurance companies (leaving aside arbitrage purchases, discussed later) we approach the transaction as if we were buying into a private business. We look at the economic prospects of the business, the people in charge of running it, and the price we must pay. We do not have in mind any time or price for sale. Indeed, we are willing to hold a stock indefinitely so long as we expect the business to increase in intrinsic value at a satisfactory rate. When investing, we view ourselves as business analysts - not as market analysts, not as macroeconomic analysts, and not even as security analysts.

我门的方式在交易热络的股票市场相当管用,因为市场三不五时就会突然浮现令人垂涎三尺的投资机会,但这价格其实并不太重要,因为就算是我们持有的股票停止交易很长一段时间我们也不在意,就像是世界百科全书或是费区海默同样没有每天的报价,最后一点,我们的经济利益取决于我们所拥有的公司本身的经济利益,不管我们持有的是全部或者是部份股权都一样。

Our approach makes an active trading market useful, since it periodically presents us with mouth-watering opportunities. But by no means is it essential: a prolonged suspension of trading in the securities we hold would not bother us any more than does the lack of daily quotations on World Book or Fechheimer. Eventually, our economic fate will be determined by the economic fate of the business we own, whether our ownership is partial or total.

班哲明.葛拉汉是我的老师,也是我的朋友,很久以前讲过一段有关对于市场波动心态的谈话,是我认为对于投资获利最有帮助的一席话,他说投资人可以试着将股票市场的波动当作是一位市场先生每天给你的报价,他就像是一家私人企业的合伙人,不管怎样,市场先生每天都会报个价格要买下你的股份或是将手中股份卖给你。

Ben Graham, my friend and teacher, long ago described the mental attitude toward market fluctuations that I believe to be most conducive to investment success. He said that you should imagine market quotations as coming from a remarkably accommodating fellow named Mr. Market who is your partner in a private business. Without fail, Mr. Market appears daily and names a price at which he will either buy your interest or sell you his.

即使是你们所共同拥有的合伙企业经营稳定变化不大,市场先生每天还是会固定提出报价,同时市场先生有一个毛病,那就是他的情绪很不稳定,当他高兴时,往往只看到合伙企业好的一面,所以为了避免手中的股份被你买走,他会提出一个很高的价格,甚至想要从你手中买下你拥有的股份;但有时候,当他觉得沮丧时,眼中看到的只是这家企业的一堆问题,这时他会提出一个非常低的报价要把股份卖给你,因为他很怕你会将手中的股份塞给他。

Even though the business that the two of you own may have economic characteristics that are stable, Mr. Market's quotations will be anything but. For, sad to say, the poor fellow has incurable emotional problems. At times he feels euphoric and can see only the favorable factors affecting the business. When in that mood, he names a very high buy-sell price because he fears that you will snap up his interest and rob him of imminent gains. At other times he is depressed and can see nothing but trouble ahead for both the business and the world. On these occasions he will name a very low price, since he is terrified that you will unload your interest on him.

市场先生还有一个很可爱的特点,那就是他不在乎受到冷落,若今天他提出的报价不被接受,隔天他还是会上门重新报价,要不要交易完全由你自主,所以在这种情况下,他的行为举止越失措,你可能得到的好处也就越多。

Mr. Market has another endearing characteristic: He doesn't mind being ignored. If his quotation is uninteresting to you today, he will be back with a new one tomorrow. Transactions are strictly at your option. Under these conditions, the more manic-depressive his behavior, the better for you.

但就像辛蒂瑞拉参加的化妆舞会一样,你务必注意午夜前的钟响,否则马车将会变回番瓜,市场先生是来给你服务的,千万不要受他的诱惑反而被他所导引,你要利用的是他饱饱的口袋,而不是草包般的脑袋,如果他有一天突然傻傻地出现在你面前,你可以选择视而不见或好好地加以利用,但是要是你占不到他的便宜反而被他愚蠢的想法所吸引,则你的下场可能会很凄惨;事实上若是你没有把握能够比市场先生更清楚地衡量企业的价值,你最好不要跟他玩这样的游戏,就像是打牌一样,若是你没有办法在30分钟内看出谁是肉脚,那么那个肉脚很可能就是你!

But, like Cinderella at the ball, you must heed one warning or everything will turn into pumpkins and mice: Mr. Market is there to serve you, not to guide you. It is his pocketbook, not his wisdom, that you will find useful. If he shows up some day in a particularly foolish mood, you are free to either ignore him or to take advantage of him, but it will be disastrous if you fall under his influence. Indeed, if you aren't certain that you understand and can value your business far better than Mr. Market, you don't belong in the game. As they say in poker, "If you've been in the game 30 minutes and you don't know who the patsy is, you're the patsy."

葛拉汉的市场先生理论在现今的投资世界内或许显得有些过时,尤其是在那些大谈市场效率理论、动态避险与beta值的专家学者眼中更是如此,他们会对那些深奥的课题感到兴趣是可以理解的,因为这对于渴望投资建议的追求者来说,是相当具吸引力的,就像是没有一位名医可以单靠「吃两颗阿斯匹宁」这类简单有效的建议成名致富的。

Ben's Mr. Market allegory may seem out-of-date in today's investment world, in which most professionals and academicians talk of efficient markets, dynamic hedging and betas. Their interest in such matters is understandable, since techniques shrouded in mystery clearly have value to the purveyor of investment advice. After all, what witch doctor has ever achieved fame and fortune by simply advising "Take two aspirins"?

这当然是股市秘籍存在的价值,但就我个人的看法,投资成功不是靠晦涩难解的公式、计算机运算或是股票行情板上股票上下的跳动,相反地投资人要能成功,惟有凭借着优异的商业判断同时避免自己的想法、行为,受到容易煽动人心的市场情绪所影响,以我个人的经验来说,要能够免除市场诱惑,最好的方法就是将葛拉汉的市场先生理论铭记在心。

The value of market esoterica to the consumer of investment advice is a different story. In my opinion, investment success will not be produced by arcane formulae, computer programs or signals flashed by the price behavior of stocks and markets. Rather an investor will succeed by coupling good business judgment with an ability to insulate his thoughts and behavior from the super-contagious emotions that swirl about the marketplace. In my own efforts to stay insulated, I have found it highly useful to keep Ben's Mr. Market concept firmly in mind.

追随葛拉汉的教诲,查理跟我着眼的是投资组合本身的经营成果,以此来判断投资是否成功,而不是他们每天或是每年的股价变化,短期间市场或许会忽略一家经营成功的企业,但最后这些公司终将获得市场的肯定,就像葛拉汉所说的:「短期而言,股票市场是一个投票机,但长期来说,它却是一个体重机」一家成功的公司是否很快地就被发现并不是重点,重要的是只要这家公司的内在价值能够以稳定地速度成长才是关键,事实上越晚被发现有时好处更多,因为我们就有更多的机会以便宜的价格买进它的股份。

Following Ben's teachings, Charlie and I let our marketable equities tell us by their operating results - not by their daily, or even yearly, price quotations - whether our investments are successful. The market may ignore business success for a while, but eventually will confirm it. As Ben said: "In the short run, the market is a voting machine but in the long run it is a weighing machine." The speed at which a business's success is recognized, furthermore, is not that important as long as the company's intrinsic value is increasing at a satisfactory rate. In fact, delayed recognition can be an advantage: It may give us the chance to buy more of a good thing at a bargain price.

当然有时市场也会高估一家企业的价值,在这种情况下,我们会考虑把股份出售,另外有时虽然公司股价合理或甚至略微低估,但若是我们发现有更被低估的投资标的或是我们觉得比较熟悉了解的公司时,我们也会考虑出售股份。

Sometimes, of course, the market may judge a business to be more valuable than the underlying facts would indicate it is. In such a case, we will sell our holdings. Sometimes, also, we will sell a security that is fairly valued or even undervalued because we require funds for a still more undervalued investment or one we believe we understand better.

然而我们必须强调的是我们不会因为被投资公司的股价上涨或是因为我们已经持有一段时间,就把它们给处分掉,在华尔街名言中,最可笑的莫过于是「赚钱的人是不会破产的」,我们很愿意无限期的持有一家公司的股份,只要这家公司所运用的资金可以产生令人满意的报酬、管理阶层优秀能干且正直,同时市场对于其股价没有过度的高估。

We need to emphasize, however, that we do not sell holdings just because they have appreciated or because we have held them for a long time. (Of Wall Street maxims the most foolish may be "You can't go broke taking a profit.") We are quite content to hold any security indefinitely, so long as the prospective return on equity capital of the underlying business is satisfactory, management is competent and honest, and the market does not overvalue the business.

但是这不包含我们保险公司所拥有的三家企业,即使它们的股价再怎么涨,我们也不会卖,事实上我们把这些投资与前面那些具控制权的公司一样地看待,它们不像是一般的商品可以卖来卖去,反而像是Berkshire企业的一部份,不管市场先生提出再怎么高的天价也一样,只是在此我要加一条但书,除非因为我们的保险公司发生钜额亏损,必须出售部份的持股来弥补亏损,当然我们会尽所能避免这种情况发生。

However, our insurance companies own three marketable common stocks that we would not sell even though they became far overpriced in the market. In effect, we view these investments exactly like our successful controlled businesses - a permanent part of Berkshire rather than merchandise to be disposed of once Mr. Market offers us a sufficiently high price. To that, I will add one qualifier: These stocks are held by our insurance companies and we would, if absolutely necessary, sell portions of our holdings to pay extraordinary insurance losses. We intend, however, to manage our affairs so that sales are never required.

当然查理跟我决定要拥有并持有一家公司的股份,是同时综合了个人想法与财务方面的考量,对某些人来说,我们这样的做法可能有点不合常规, (查理跟我长期以来一直遵从奥美广告创办人?大卫奥美的建议,在年轻时发展出你自己的特异风格,这样子等你到老时,人们就不会觉得你是个怪胎),的确,近年来在交易频繁的华尔街,我们的态度看起来有些特立独行,在那个竞技场内,所有的公司与股份,都不过是交易的筹码而已。

A determination to have and to hold, which Charlie and I share, obviously involves a mixture of personal and financial considerations. To some, our stand may seem highly eccentric. (Charlie and I have long followed David Oglivy's advice: "Develop your eccentricities while you are young. That way, when you get old, people won't think you're going ga-ga.") Certainly, in the transaction-fixated Wall Street of recent years, our posture must seem odd: To many in that arena, both companies and stocks are seen only as raw material for trades.

但是我们的态度完全符合我们本身的人格特质,这就是我们想要过的生活,丘吉尔曾经说过,我们很清楚我们要如何去塑造我们想要的模式,因此我们宁愿跟我们喜欢与推崇的对象往来,就算是因此,会比跟一些我们讨厌或是不喜欢的人打交道,少得到一些投资报酬也没有关系,我想我们是大概不可能再遇到像这三家主要的被投资公司组成份子一样,令我们所喜爱与推崇。

以下所列就是我们永恒的持股

Our attitude, however, fits our personalities and the way we want to live our lives. Churchill once said, "You shape your houses and then they shape you." We know the manner in which we wish to be shaped. For that reason, we would rather achieve a return of X while associating with people whom we strongly like and admire than realize 110% of X by exchanging these relationships for uninteresting or unpleasant ones. And we will never find people we like and admire more than some of the main participants at the three companies - our permanent holdings - shown below:

No. of Shares Cost Market

(000s omitted)

3,000,000 Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. ........... $517,500 $1,035,000

6,850,000 GEICO Corporation .................. 45,713 756,925

1,727,765 The Washington Post Company ........9,731 323,092

在这些公司上,我们实在看不出买下并控制一家企业或是购买部份股权

有什么基本上的差异,每次我们都试着买进一些长期看好的公司,我们的目标是以合理的价格买到绩优的企业,而不是以便宜的价格买进平庸的公司,查理跟我发现买到货真价实的东西才是我们真正应该做的。

We really don't see many fundamental differences between the purchase of a controlled business and the purchase of marketable holdings such as these. In each case we try to buy into businesses with favorable long-term economics. Our goal is to find an outstanding business at a sensible price, not a mediocre business at a bargain price. Charlie and I have found that making silk purses out of silk is the best that we can do; with sow's ears, we fail. (It must be noted that your Chairman, always a quick study, required only 20 years to recognize how important it was to buy good businesses. In the interim, I searched for "bargains" - and had the misfortune to find some. My punishment was an education in the economics of short-line farm implement manufacturers, third-place department stores, and New England textile manufacturers.)

必须特别注意的是,本人虽然以反应快速著称,不过却花了二十年才明白要买下好企业的重要性,刚开始我努力寻找便宜的货色,不幸的是真的让我找到了一些,所得到的教训是在农具机械、三流百货公司与新英格兰纺织工厂等经济形态上上了一课。

Of course, Charlie and I may misread the fundamental economics of a business. When that happens, we will encounter problems whether that business is a wholly-owned subsidiary or a marketable security, although it is usually far easier to exit from the latter. (Indeed, businesses can be misread: Witness the European reporter who, after being sent to this country to profile Andrew Carnegie, cabled his editor, "My God, you'll never believe the sort of money there is in running libraries.")

当然查理跟我确实会误判一家企业的基础竞争力,结果是我们面临了一大堆问题与挑战,不管是买下全部或是部份的股权,当然后者要脱身相对容易一点, (确实企业很可能会被误判,一位欧洲记者被派驻到美国采访卡内基,发了一封电报给他的编辑主管说到,老天你一定不敢相信经营博物馆竟然可以赚那么多钱)

In making both control purchases and stock purchases, we try to buy not only good businesses, but ones run by high-grade, talented and likeable managers. If we make a mistake about the managers we link up with, the controlled company offers a certain advantage because we have the power to effect change. In practice, however, this advantage is somewhat illusory: Management changes, like marital changes, are painful, time-consuming and chancy. In any event, at our three marketable-but permanent holdings, this point is moot: With Tom Murphy and Dan Burke at Cap Cities, Bill Snyder and Lou Simpson at GEICO, and Kay Graham and Dick Simmons at The Washington Post, we simply couldn't be in better hands.

在进行取得控制权或是部份股权投资时,我们不但试着去找一家好公司,同时最好是能够由品格才能兼具且为我们喜爱的管理者经营,如果是看错了人,在具控制权的情况下,我们还有机会发挥影响力来改变,事实上这种优势有点不太实际,因为更换管理阶层,就像是结束婚姻关系一样,过程是相当地费时痛苦且要看运气,不论如何,我们三家永恒的股权投资在这点是不太可能发生的,有Tom Murphy 和Dan Burke 在资本城, Bill Snyder 和 Lou Simpson 在盖可保险 Kay Graham 和Dick Simmons 在华盛顿邮报,我们实在想不出有更有的接替人选。我必须说明控制一家公司有二个主要的优点,首先当我们控制一家公司我们便有分配资金与资源的权力,相较之下,若是部份股权投资则完全没有说话的余地,这点非常重要,因为大部分的公司经营者,并不擅长于做资金分配,之所以如此并不让人讶异,因为大部分的老板之所以能够成功是靠着他们在行销、生产、工程、行政管理方面的专长。

I would say that the controlled company offers two main advantages. First, when we control a company we get to allocate capital, whereas we are likely to have little or nothing to say about this process with marketable holdings. This point can be important because the heads of many companies are not skilled in capital allocation. Their inadequacy is not surprising. Most bosses rise to the top because they have excelled in an area such as marketing, production, engineering, administration or, sometimes, institutional politics.

而一旦成为CEO之后,他们马上必须面临许多新的责任与挑战,包括要做资金分配的决策,这是一项他们以前从未面对艰巨且重要的任务,打个比方,这就好象是一位深具天分的音乐家,没有安排让他到卡内基音乐厅演奏,却反而任命他为联邦准备理事会主席一般。

Once they become CEOs, they face new responsibilities. They now must make capital allocation decisions, a critical job that they may have never tackled and that is not easily mastered. To stretch the point, it's as if the final step for a highly-talented musician was not to perform at Carnegie Hall but, instead, to be named Chairman of the Federal Reserve.

CEO缺乏资金分配的能力可不是一件小事,一家公司若是每年保留10%的盈余在公司的话,经过十年后,他所要掌管的资金等于增加了60%。

The lack of skill that many CEOs have at capital allocation is no small matter: After ten years on the job, a CEO whose company annually retains earnings equal to 10% of net worth will have been responsible for the deployment of more than 60% of all the capital at work in the business.

某些体认到自己缺乏这方面能力的CEO(当然也有很多不这样认为),会转向部属、管理顾问或是投资银行家寻求建议,查理跟我时常观察这种帮忙最后的结果,总的来说,我们认为大多数的情况并不能解决问题,反而是让问题变得更严重。

CEOs who recognize their lack of capital-allocation skills (which not all do) will often try to compensate by turning to their staffs, management consultants, or investment bankers. Charlie and I have frequently observed the consequences of such "help." On balance, we feel it is more likely to accentuate the capital-allocation problem than to solve it.

结果你就会发现在美国企业一大堆不明智的资本分配决策一再重复的发生 (这也是为什么你常常听到组织重整再造的原因),然而在Berkshire我们算是比较幸运,在一家我们不具控制权的股权投资方面,大部分的公司资金运用还算得当,有的甚至还相当的杰出。

In the end, plenty of unintelligent capital allocation takes place in corporate America. (That's why you hear so much about "restructuring.") Berkshire, however, has been fortunate. At the companies that are our major non-controlled holdings, capital has generally been well-deployed and, in some cases, brilliantly so.

第二项优点是相较于部份投资,取得控制权的投资享有租税上的优惠, Berkshire身为一家控股公司,在投资部份股权时,必须吸收相当大的租税成本,相较之下,持有控制股权的投资则没有这种情况,这种租税弱势发生在我们身上由来已久,但过去几年的税法修订,使得这种情形更雪上加霜,同样的获利,若发生在我们持有80%以上股权的公司,要比其它部份股权投资的效益要高出50%以上。

The second advantage of a controlled company over a marketable security has to do with taxes. Berkshire, as a corporate holder, absorbs some significant tax costs through the ownership of partial positions that we do not when our ownership is 80%, or greater. Such tax disadvantages have long been with us, but changes in the tax code caused them to increase significantly during the past year. As a consequence, a given business result can now deliver Berkshire financial results that are as much as 50% better if they come from an 80%-or-greater holding rather than from a lesser holding.

不过这种劣势有时可以由另一项优势所抵消掉,有时候股票市场让我们可以以不可思议的价格买到绩优公司部份的股权,远低于协议买下整家公司取得控制权的平均价格,举例来说,我们在1973年以每股5.63元买下华盛顿邮报的股票,该公司在1987年的每股盈余是10.3元,同样地,我们分别在1976、1979与1980年以每股6.67元的平均价格买下盖可保险的部份股权,到了去年其每股税后的营业利益是9.01元,从这些情况看来,市场先生实在是一位非常大方的好朋友。

The disadvantages of owning marketable securities are sometimes offset by a huge advantage: Occasionally the stock market offers us the chance to buy non-controlling pieces of extraordinary businesses at truly ridiculous prices - dramatically below those commanded in negotiated transactions that transfer control. For example, we purchased our Washington Post stock in 1973 at $5.63 per share, and per-share operating earnings in 1987 after taxes were $10.30. Similarly, Our GEICO stock was purchased in 1976, 1979 and 1980 at an average of $6.67 per share, and after-tax operating earnings per share last year were $9.01. In cases such as these, Mr. Market has proven to be a mighty good friend.

一个矛盾又有趣的会计现象,从上面的表你可以看到,我们在这三家公司的股权投资市值超过20亿,但是他们在1987年总共贡献给Berkshire帐面税后盈余却只有一千一百万美元。

An interesting accounting irony overlays a comparison of the reported financial results of our controlled companies with those of the permanent minority holdings listed above. As you can see, those three stocks have a market value of over $2 billion. Yet they produced only $11 million in reported after-tax earnings for Berkshire in 1987.

会计原则规定我们必须在这些公司分配股利的时候才能认列利益,这通常要比公司实际所赚的数字要少的多,以这三家公司合计, 1987年可以分配到的盈余数字高达一亿美元,另一方面,会计原则规定这三家公司的股份若是有保险公司所持有,则其帐面价值应该要以其市场价格列示,结果是一般公认会计原则要求我们在资产负债表上秀出这些被投资事业的实际价值,却不准让我们在损益表是反应他们实质的获利能力。

Accounting rules dictate that we take into income only the dividends these companies pay us - which are little more than nominal - rather than our share of their earnings, which in 1987 amounted to well over $100 million. On the other hand, accounting rules provide that the carrying value of these three holdings - owned, as they are, by insurance companies - must be recorded on our balance sheet at current market prices. The result: GAAP accounting lets us reflect in our net worth the up-to-date underlying values of the businesses we partially own, but does not let us reflect their underlying earnings in our income account. In the case of our controlled companies, just the opposite is true. Here, we show full earnings in our income account but never change asset values on our balance sheet, no matter how much the value of a business might have increased since we purchased it.

在我们具有控制权的投资事业,情况却刚好相反,我们可以在损益表上充分表示其获利状况,但不管这些资产在我们买下之后,价值在无形间如何地增加,我们也无法在资产负债表上做任何的变动。

Our mental approach to this accounting schizophrenia is to ignore GAAP figures and to focus solely on the future earning power of both our controlled and non-controlled businesses. Using this approach, we establish our own ideas of business value, keeping these independent from both the accounting values shown on our books for controlled companies and the values placed by a sometimes foolish market on our partially-owned companies. It is this business value that we hope to increase at a reasonable (or, preferably, unreasonable) rate in the years ahead.

我们对于这种会计精神分裂症的调整心态方式就是不去理会一般公认会计原则所编制的数字,而只专注于这些具控制权或者是部份股权的公司,其未来的获利能力,采用这种方法,我们依自己的概念建立一套企业价值的评价模式,它有别于会计帐上所显示的具控制权的帐面投资成本以及有的时候高的离谱的部份股权投资市值,这才是我们真正想要在未来年度持续稳定增加的数字(当然若能以不合理的速度成长的话更好)。

Marketable Securities – Other

其它有价证券

除了上述的三家重要投资事业,我们的保险公司也持有大量的有价证券,

主要可以分为五个类型,分别为:

(1)长期股票投资(2)长期固定收益债券(3)中期固定收益债券(4)短期约当现金(5)短期套利交易

In addition to our three permanent common stock holdings, we hold large quantities of marketable securities in our insurance companies. In selecting these, we can choose among five major categories: (1) long-term common stock investments, (2) medium-term fixed-income securities, (3) long-term fixed income securities, (4) short-term cash equivalents, and (5) short-term arbitrage commitments.

对于这五种类型的交易,我们没有特别的偏好,我们只是持续不断地寻找最高的税后报酬预计的数学期望值,且仅限于我们认为了解熟悉的投资,我们无意让与短期的帐面盈余好看,我们的目标是让长期的净值极大化。

We have no particular bias when it comes to choosing from these categories. We just continuously search among them for the highest after-tax returns as measured by "mathematical expectation," limiting ourselves always to investment alternatives we think we understand. Our criteria have nothing to do with maximizing immediately reportable earnings; our goal, rather, is to maximize eventual net worth.

首先谈谈普通股投资,1987年股市的表现精彩连连,但最后指数却没有太大的进展,道琼整个年度只涨了2.3%,你知道这就好象是在坐云霄飞车一样,市场先生在十月以前爆跳如雷,但之后却突然收敛了下来。

o Let's look first at common stocks. During 1987 the stock market was an area of much excitement but little net movement: The Dow advanced 2.3% for the year. You are aware, of course, of the roller coaster ride that produced this minor change. Mr. Market was on a manic rampage until October and then experienced a sudden, massive seizure.

市场上有所谓专业的投资人,掌管着数以亿万计的资金,就是这些人造成市场的动荡,他们不去研究企业下一步发展的方向,反而专研于其它基金经理人下一步的动向,对他们来说,股票只不过是赌博交易的筹码,就像是大富翁里的棋子一样。

We have "professional" investors, those who manage many billions, to thank for most of this turmoil. Instead of focusing on what businesses will do in the years ahead, many prestigious money managers now focus on what they expect other money managers to do in the days ahead. For them, stocks are merely tokens in a game, like the thimble and flatiron in Monopoly.

他们的做法发展到极致,便形成所谓的投资组合保险,一个在1986到1987年间广为基金经理人所接受的一种策略,这种策略只不过是像投机者停损单一样,当投资组合或是类似指数期货价格下跌时就必须处分持股,这种策略不管如此,只要下跌到一定程度便会涌出一大堆卖单,根据一份研究报告显示:有高达600亿到900亿的股票投资在1987年十月中面临一触即发的险境。

An extreme example of what their attitude leads to is "portfolio insurance," a money-management strategy that many leading investment advisors embraced in 1986-1987. This strategy - which is simply an exotically-labeled version of the small speculator's stop-loss order dictates that ever increasing portions of a stock portfolio, or their index-future equivalents, be sold as prices decline. The strategy says nothing else matters: A downtick of a given magnitude automatically produces a huge sell order. According to the Brady Report, $60 billion to $90 billion of equities were poised on this hair trigger in mid-October of 1987.

若是你认为投资顾问是被请来投资的,那你就大错特错了,在买下一家农场后,一个理性的主人会不会叫其不动产经纪人开始寻求可能的买主,只因为隔壁的农场最近卖出的价格更低一些?或是你会不会一早起来就想要把你的房子卖掉,只因为几分钟前你听到隔壁的房子以比以前便宜的价格脱手。

If you've thought that investment advisors were hired to invest, you may be bewildered by this technique. After buying a farm, would a rational owner next order his real estate agent to start selling off pieces of it whenever a neighboring property was sold at a lower price? Or would you sell your house to whatever bidder was available at 9:31 on some morning merely because at 9:30 a similar house sold for less than it would have

brought on the previous day?

这样的举动正是投资组合风险理论告诉退休基金或是学术单位当他们持有福特或是通用电气部份股权时,应该要做的动作,因为这些公司的价值越被低估,你就越应该赶快把他们处分掉,根据逻辑推论,这种方法还要求投资机构在股价反弹时再把他们买回来,一想到有这么多的资金,掌握在整天沉溺在爱莉丝梦游仙境般的经理人手中,也难怪股票市场会有如此不寻常的表现。

Moves like that, however, are what portfolio insurance tells a pension fund or university to make when it owns a portion of enterprises such as Ford or General Electric. The less these companies are being valued at, says this approach, the more vigorously they should be sold. As a "logical" corollary, the approach commands the institutions to repurchase these companies - I'm not making this up - once their prices have rebounded significantly. Considering that huge sums are controlled by managers following such Alice-in-Wonderland practices, is it any surprise that markets sometimes behave in aberrational fashion?

然而许多评论家在观察最近所发生的事时,归纳出一个不正确的结论,他们喜欢说由于股票市场掌握在这些投资大户手上,所以小额投资人根本一点机会也没有,这种结论实在是大大地错误,不管资金多寡,这样的市场绝对有利于任何投资者,只要他能够坚持自己的投资理念,事实上由手握重金的基金经理人所造成的市场波动,反而使得真正的投资人有更好的机会可以去贯彻其明智的投资行动,只要他在面临股市波动时,不会因为财务或心理因素而被迫在不当的时机出脱手中持股,他就很难会受到伤害。

Many commentators, however, have drawn an incorrect conclusion upon observing recent events: They are fond of saying that the small investor has no chance in a market now dominated by the erratic behavior of the big boys. This conclusion is dead wrong: Such markets are ideal for any investor - small or large - so long as he sticks to his investment knitting. Volatility caused by money managers who speculate irrationally with huge sums will offer the true investor more chances to make intelligent investment moves. He can be hurt by such volatility only if he is forced, by either financial or psychological pressures, to sell at untoward times.

在Berkshire过去几年,我们在股票市场实在没有什么可以发挥的地方,在十月的那段期间,有几支股票跌到相当吸引我们的价位,不过我们没有能够在他们反弹之前买到够多的股份,在1987年底除了永久的持股与短期的套利之外,我们并没有新增任何主要的股票投资组合(指5,000万美元以上),不过你大可以放心,一旦市场先生一定会给我们机会的时候,我们一定会好好把握住的。

At Berkshire, we have found little to do in stocks during the past few years. During the break in October, a few stocks fell to prices that interested us, but we were unable to make meaningful purchases before they rebounded. At yearend 1987 we had no major common stock investments (that is, over $50 million) other than those we consider permanent or arbitrage holdings. However, Mr. Market will offer us opportunities - you can be sure of that - and, when he does, we will be willing and able to participate.

至于我们主要的资金避风港-中期的免税债券,在去年我已经解释过其特点,虽然在1987年间我们也有进出,但整个部位变化不大,总金额约在9亿美元左右,大部分的债券是属于1986年税务改革法案中祖父级的债券,不同于现在保险公司新买进的债券,他们享有百分之百免税的优惠。

o In the meantime, our major parking place for money is medium-term tax-exempt bonds, whose limited virtues I explained in last year's annual report. Though we both bought and sold some of these bonds in 1987, our position changed little overall, holding around $900 million. A large portion of our bonds are "grandfathered" under the Tax Reform Act of 1986, which means they are fully tax-exempt. Bonds currently purchased by insurance companies are not.

当作短期约当现金的替代品,中期免税债券的表现还算不错,他们贡献了不少额外的投资报酬,且目前的价值也略高于我们当初投资的成本,但不管之后他们的市价高或低,只要我们找到更好的投资机会,我们随时都有可能把他们给处分掉。

As an alternative to short-term cash equivalents, our medium-term tax-exempts have - so far served us well. They have produced substantial extra income for us and are currently worth a bit above our cost. Regardless of their market price, we are ready to dispose of our bonds whenever something better comes along.

我们持续避免去碰长期债券(也有可能因为没有对中期免税债券保持距离而犯下大错),债券没有比他们表彰的货币来得好,在过去十年以即可预见的未来,我们看不出我们会对美国债券有太大的兴趣。

o We continue to have an aversion to long-term bonds (and may be making a serious mistake by not disliking medium-term bonds as well). Bonds are no better than the currency in which they are denominated, and nothing we have seen in the past year - or past decade - makes us enthusiastic about the long-term future of U.S. currency.

我们钜额的贸易逆差,使得我们必须面临许多不同形式的支票帐单,这包含外国人持有的美国政府与企业公债、银行存款等,以惊人的速度累积成长,一开始我们的政府所采取的方式,就像是欲望街车的角色布兰奇所说的,我总是依赖陌生人的同情心而活,当然本案的陌生人依靠的主要是债务人的可靠性,虽然贬值的美元也让他们必须付出高昂的代价。

Our enormous trade deficit is causing various forms of "claim checks" - U.S. government and corporate bonds, bank deposits, etc. - to pile up in the hands of foreigners at a distressing rate. By default, our government has adopted an approach to its finances patterned on that of Blanche DuBois, of A Streetcar Named Desire, who said, "I have always depended on the kindness of strangers." In this case, of course, the "strangers" are relying on the integrity of our claim checks although the plunging dollar has already made that proposition expensive for them.

外国人对我们的信心可能有点所托非人,因为当要付的支票帐单持续的增加,而债务人又能够无限制地主导自己的购买能力时,美钞发行人增加流通货币来稀释其货币价值的情况铁定会发生,对于债务国政府来说,通货膨胀这项武器就好象是经济战争中威力强大的氢弹一样,很少有国家可以让全世界充斥着以自己货币计价的债券,不过由于我们国家过去不错的财政记录,使得我们能够打破这项限制,只是这样的宽容使得我们通膨的压力只会增加不会减少,而一旦我们屈服于这样的压力,不只是持有美国债权的外国人遭殃,连带的我们也会受到影响。

The faith that foreigners are placing in us may be misfounded. When the claim checks outstanding grow sufficiently numerous and when the issuing party can unilaterally determine their purchasing power, the pressure on the issuer to dilute their value by inflating the currency becomes almost irresistible. For the debtor government, the weapon of inflation is the economic equivalent of the "H" bomb, and that is why very few countries have been allowed to swamp the world with debt denominated in their own currency. Our past, relatively good record for fiscal integrity has let us break this rule, but the generosity accorded us is likely to intensify, rather than relieve, the eventual pressure on us to inflate. If we do succumb to that pressure, it won't be just the foreign holders of our claim checks who will suffer. It will be all of us as well.

当然在债务问题失控之前,美国政府也会试着采取一些方法来抑制贸易逆差, (有关于这点,下滑的美元汇率或许会有帮助,只是同样地它又会造成另一种伤害),目前我们政府的做法跟乱世佳人里郝思佳的态度差不多一样,「明天再想办法吧!」,而几乎无可避免的对于财政问题的处理耽搁将会造成通货膨胀的后果。

Of course, the U.S. may take steps to stem our trade deficit well before our position as a net debtor gets out of hand. (In that respect, the falling dollar will help, though unfortunately it will hurt in other ways.) Nevertheless, our government's behavior in this test of its mettle is apt to be consistent with its Scarlett O'Hara approach generally: "I'll think about it tomorrow." And, almost inevitably, procrastination in facing up to fiscal problems will have inflationary consequences.

只是这些后果发生的时点与影响我们实在无从去预测,不过无法去量化或是锁定这种风险不代表我们就可以忽视它的存在,当然我们的推论也许会不准确,目前的利率水准或可弥补通货膨胀所带来的损失,只是我们对于长期的债券仍报以持续的戒心。

Both the timing and the sweep of those consequences are unpredictable. But our inability to quantify or time the risk does not mean we should ignore it. While recognizing the possibility that we may be wrong and that present interest rates may adequately compensate for the inflationary risk, we retain a general fear of long-term bonds.

然而我们仍愿意把一部份资金摆在这上头,如果在某些特定的有价证券上有特殊的利益,就像是我在1984年年报中曾经提到我们在华盛顿公用电力系统债券上的投资,在1987年我们又持续加码投资,总计到年底我们持有的这类帐面未摊销成本为2.4亿美元债券,市价约为3.16亿美元,还外加每年三千四百万美元的免税利息收入。

We are, however, willing to invest a moderate portion of our funds in this category if we think we have a significant edge in a specific security. That willingness explains our holdings of the Washington Public Power Supply Systems #1, #2 and #3 issues, discussed in our 1984 report. We added to our WPPSS position during 1987. At yearend, we had holdings with an amortized cost of $240 million and a market value of $316 million, paying us tax-exempt income of $34 million annually. o We continued to do well in arbitrage last year, though - or perhaps because - we operated on a very limited scale. We enter into only a few arbitrage commitments each year and restrict ourselves to large transactions that have been publicly announced. We do not participate in situations in which green-mailers are attempting to put a target company "in play."

我们持续在短期套利交易上有所斩获,虽然我们从事的规模有限,每年我们限制自己只专注在几个少数已公开信息的大型交易案,我们不介入那些已被投机套利客锁定的个案。

We have practiced arbitrage on an opportunistic basis for decades and, to date, our results have been quite good. Though we've never made an exact calculation, I believe that overall we have averaged annual pre-tax returns of at least 25% from arbitrage. I'm quite sure we did better than that in 1987. But it should be emphasized that a really bad experience or two - such as many arbitrage operations suffered in late 1987 - could change the figures dramatically.

我们从事机率套利已有好几十年的经验,到目前为止,我们的成果还算不错,虽然我们从来没有仔细去算过,我相信我们在套利投资方面的税前年报酬率应该有25%左右,我确信1987年的成绩甚至比以前好的多,但必须强调的是只要发生一、两次像今年其它几个套利惨痛的经验,就可能使得整个结果猪羊变色。

Our only $50 million-plus arbitrage position at yearend 1987 was 1,096,200 shares of Allegis, with a cost of $76 million and a market value of $78 million.

今年我们新增5,000万美元以上的套利案只有斥资7,600万美元投资100万股Allegis,目前的市价约为7,800万美元。

o We had two other large holdings at yearend that do not fit precisely into any of our five categories. One was various Texaco, Inc. bonds with short maturities, all purchased after Texaco went into bankruptcy. Were it not for the extraordinarily strong capital position of our insurance companies, it would be inappropriate for us to buy defaulted bonds. At prices prevailing after Texaco's bankruptcy filing, however, we regarded these issues as by far the most attractive bond investment available to us.

我们在年底还有其它二个主要的投资组合不在前述五个范围之内,一项是Texaco短期债券,全都是在它破产之后才买进,要不是因为我们旗下保险公司的财务实力雄厚,我们实在不太适合去买这种已发生问题的债券,不过以这些债券在Texaco倒闭后的低廉价格,这是目前我们可以找得到最吸引我们的投资标的。

On a worst-case basis with respect to the Pennzoil litigation, we felt the bonds were likely to be worth about what we paid for them. Given a sensible settlement, which seemed likely, we expected the bonds to be worth considerably more. At yearend our Texaco bonds were carried on our books at $104 million and had a market value of $119 million.

考量其所牵涉的诉讼案件,在最坏的情况之下,我们认为应该还是可以将投资成本回收,而若是官司可以和解收场,我们预期债券的价值将会更高,截至年底Texaco债券在我们帐面上的成本约为一亿美元,目前的市值则约为1.2亿美元。

By far our largest - and most publicized - investment in 1987 was a $700 million purchase of Salomon Inc 9% preferred stock. This preferred is convertible after three years into Salomon common stock at $38 per share and, if not converted, will be redeemed ratably over five years beginning October 31, 1995. From most standpoints, this commitment fits into the medium-term fixed-income securities category. In addition, we have an interesting conversion possibility.

在投资银行业,我们当然没有特殊的远见能够预知其未来发展的方向与获利能力,就产业特性而言,投资银行业比起我们其它主要投资的行业更难预测,这也是为什么我们选择以可转换特别股的方式投资。

We, of course, have no special insights regarding the direction or future profitability of investment banking. By their nature, the economics of this industry are far less predictable than those of most other industries in which we have major Commitments. This unpredictability is one of the reasons why our participation is in the form of a convertible preferred.

当然我们对于所罗门公司的CEO -John Gutfreund的能力与品格有不错的印象,查理与我都很尊崇且信赖他,我们是在1976年开始认识他,当时他在协助GEICO汽车保险免于破产的命运时出了不少力,之后我们看到他好几次引导客户免于愚蠢的交易,虽然这使得所罗门因此损失许多顾问费收入,这种以客户服务至上的表现在华尔街并不多见。

What we do have a strong feeling about is the ability and integrity of John Gutfreund, CEO of Salomon Inc. Charlie and I like, admire and trust John. We first got to know him in 1976 when he played a key role in GEICO's escape from near-bankruptcy. Several times since, we have seen John steer clients away from transactions that would have been unwise, but that the client clearly wanted to make - even though his advice provided no fee to Salomon and acquiescence would have delivered a large fee. Such service-above-self behavior is far from automatic in Wall Street.

如同查理在50页上所陈述的理由,截至年底我们将在所罗门公司的投资价值定在面额的98%,大约比我们的投资成本少1,400万,不过我们仍然相信这家公司在高品质资本筹募与市场创造营运,将可为我们的投资创造不错的盈余,若果真如此,我们可转换为股权的权利将会非常有价值。

For the reasons Charlie outlines on page 50, at yearend we valued our Salomon investment at 98% of par, $14 million less than our cost. However, we believe there is a reasonable likelihood that a leading, high-quality capital-raising and market-making operation can average good returns on equity. If so, our conversion right will eventually prove to be valuable.

最后关于我们有价证券的投资再补充两点,第一照例我还是给诸位一个提醒,相较于去年底的持股内容,我们现在的投资组合又有变动,而且在没有知会大家的情况下,还会继续变动。

Two further comments about our investments in marketable securities are appropriate. First, we give you our usual warning: Our holdings have changed since yearend and will continue to do so without notice.

这二点跟前面也有相关,跟前几年一样,在1987年媒体不时在猜测我们进出的投资标的,这些报导有时是真的,有时是半真半假,有时根本就不是事实,有趣的是,我发现媒体的规模与声誉和报导的真实性一点相关都没有,曾经有一家全美举足轻重的媒体杂志刊登一项完全错误的谣言,另外一家出版业者则将一桩短期的套利投资误当做是一项长期的投资, (之所以没有公布名字,是因为古有名训,遇到整桶整桶买墨水的人,最好不要跟他发生争吵)

The second comment is related: During 1987, as in some earlier years, there was speculation in the press from time to time about our purchase or sale of various securities. These stories were sometimes true, sometimes partially true, and other times completely untrue. Interestingly, there has been no correlation between the size and prestige of the publication and the accuracy of the report. One dead-wrong rumor was given considerable prominence by a major national magazine, and another leading publication misled its readers by writing about an arbitrage position as if it were a long-term investment commitment. (In not naming names, I am observing the old warning that it's not wise to pick fights with people who buy ink by the barrel.) You should understand that we simply don't comment in any way on rumors, whether they are true or false. If we were to deny the incorrect reports and refuse comment on the correct ones, we would in effect be commenting on all.

大家应该知道我们从来不会对任何的谣言加以评论,不管是真或是假,因为若是我们否认不实的报导,或是拒绝对真实的事件发表评论,都等于间接表达了我们的立场。

In a world in which big investment ideas are both limited and valuable, we have no interest in telling potential competitors what we are doing except to the extent required by law. We certainly don't expect others to tell us of their investment ideas. Nor would we expect a media company to disclose news of acquisitions it was privately pursuing or a journalist to tell his competitors about stories on which he is working or sources he is using.

在现在这个社会,大型的投资机会相当的稀少且弥足珍贵,除非法令特别要求,我们不可能向潜在的竞争对手透露我们的动向,就像我们也不可能期待对手告诉我们他的想法,同样地我们也不期待媒体能够揭露他们独家采访得到的购并消息,就像是一个记者不可能向他的同业透露他正在努力追踪的独家新闻。

I find it uncomfortable when friends or acquaintances mention that they are buying X because it has been reported - incorrectly - that Berkshire is a buyer. However, I do not set them straight. If they want to participate in whatever Berkshire actually is buying, they can always purchase Berkshire stock. But perhaps that is too simple. Usually, I suspect, they find it more exciting to buy what is being talked about. Whether that strategy is more profitable is another question.

我特别觉得很不高兴,当我的朋友或是旧识告诉我说他们买进X公司的股票,因为报纸错误地报导说Berkshire已经买进这家公司的股票,不过后来我发现事情没有那么单纯,他们会买的原因主要是因为这些股票实在太热门,至于是否能够真正获利则是另外一回事。

Financing

财务方面

Shortly after yearend, Berkshire sold two issues of debentures, totaling $250 million. Both issues mature in 2018 and will be retired at an even pace through sinking fund operations that begin in 1999. Our overall interest cost, after allowing for expenses of issuance, is slightly over 10%. Salomon was our investment banker, and its service was excellent.

在年度结束后不久,Berkshire发行了两期的债券,总共的金额是2.5亿美元,到期日皆为2018年并且会从1999年开始慢慢分期由偿债基金赎回,包含发行成本在内,平均的资金成本约在10%上下,负责这次发行债券的投资银行就是所罗门,他们提供了绝佳的服务。

Despite our pessimistic views about inflation, our taste for debt is quite limited. To be sure, it is likely that Berkshire could improve its return on equity by moving to a much higher, though still conventional, debt-to-business-value ratio. It's even more likely that we could handle such a ratio, without problems, under economic conditions far worse than any that have prevailed since the early 1930s.

尽管我们对于通货膨胀抱持悲观的看法,我们对于举债的兴趣还是相当有限,虽然可以肯定的是Berkshire可以靠提高举债来增加投资报酬,即使这样做我们的负债比例还是相当的保守,且就算如此我们很有信心应该可以应付比1930经济大萧条更坏的经济环境。

But we do not wish it to be only likely that we can meet our obligations; we wish that to be certain. Thus we adhere to policies - both in regard to debt and all other matters - that will allow us to achieve acceptable long-term results under extraordinarily adverse conditions, rather than optimal results under a normal range of conditions.

但我们还是不愿意这种大概没有问题的做法,我们要的是百分之百的确定,因此我们坚持一项政策,那就是不管是举债或是其它任何方面,我们希望是能够在最坏的情况下得到合理的结果,而不是预期在乐观的情况下,得到很好的利益。

Good business or investment decisions will eventually produce quite satisfactory economic results, with no aid from leverage. Therefore, it seems to us to be both foolish and improper to risk what is important (including, necessarily, the welfare of innocent bystanders such as policyholders and employees) for some extra returns that are relatively unimportant. This view is not the product of either our advancing age or prosperity: Our opinions about debt have remained constant.

只要是好公司或是好的投资决策,不靠投资杠杆,最后还是能够得到令人满意的结果,因此我们认为为了一点额外的报酬,将重要的东西(也包含政策制定者与员工福祉)暴露在不必要的风险之下是相当愚蠢且不适当的。

However, we are not phobic about borrowing. (We're far from believing that there is no fate worse than debt.) We are willing to borrow an amount that we believe - on a worst-case basis - will pose no threat to Berkshire's well-being. Analyzing what that amount might be, we can look to some important strengths that would serve us well if major problems should engulf our economy: Berkshire's earnings come from many diverse and well-entrenched businesses; these businesses seldom require much capital investment; what debt we have is structured well; and we maintain major holdings of liquid assets. Clearly, we could be comfortable with a higher debt-to-business-value ratio than we now have.

当然我们不会畏惧借贷(我们还不至于认为借钱是万恶不赦的),我们还是愿意在估计不会损及Berkshire利益的最坏情况下,进行举债,至于这个限度在哪里,我们就必须评估自己本身的实力, Berkshire的获利来自于许多不同且扎实的产业,这些产业通常不需要额外大量的投资,负债的部份也相当健全,同时我们还保有大量的流动资产,很明显的,我们大可以承担比现在更高的负债比例。

One further aspect of our debt policy deserves comment: Unlike many in the business world, we prefer to finance in anticipation of need rather than in reaction to it. A business obtains the best financial results possible by managing both sides of its balance sheet well. This means obtaining the highest-possible return on assets and the lowest-possible cost on liabilities. It would be convenient if opportunities for intelligent action on both fronts coincided. However, reason tells us that just the opposite is likely to be the case: Tight money conditions, which translate into high costs for liabilities, will create the best opportunities for acquisitions, and cheap money will cause assets to be bid to the sky. Our conclusion: Action on the liability side should sometimes be taken independent of any action on the asset side.

我们举债政策还有一向特点值得说明,不像其它公司,我们比较希望能够预先准备而不是事后补救,一家公司若能够同时管好资产负债表的两侧,就会有不错的成绩,这代表一方面要能够将资产的报酬率提高,一方面要能够将负债的资金成本降低,若是两边都能碰巧的兼顾那就太好了,不过事实告诉我们,通常情况正好相反,当资金吃紧时,代表负债的成本上升,这正是对外购并的最好时机,因为便宜的资金有时会将竞标的资产飙到天价,我们的结论是,在举债方面的动作,有时应该要跟购置资产方面的动作分开做。

Alas, what is "tight" and "cheap" money is far from clear at any particular time. We have no ability to forecast interest rates and - maintaining our usual open-minded spirit - believe that no one else can. Therefore, we simply borrow when conditions seem non-oppressive and hope that we will later find intelligent expansion or acquisition opportunities, which - as we have said - are most likely to pop up when conditions in the debt market are clearly oppressive. Our basic principle is that if you want to shoot rare, fast-moving elephants, you should always carry a loaded gun.

当然何谓吃紧﹖何谓便宜的资金﹖很难有一个清楚的分野,我们无法去预测利率的走向,所以我们随时保持开放的心态,随机地在市场还没有那么悲观时借钱,期望之后可以找到合适的购并或投资标的,而通常如同我们先前所提到的,大概是会在债市情况悲观时出现,我们一个基本的原则就是,如果你想要猎捕那种罕见且移动迅速的大象,那么你的枪枝就要随时上膛准备。

Our fund-first, buy-or-expand-later policy almost always penalizes near-term earnings. For example, we are now earning about 6 1/2% on the $250 million we recently raised at 10%, a disparity that is currently costing us about $160,000 per week. This negative spread is unimportant to us and will not cause us to stretch for either acquisitions or higher-yielding short-term instruments. If we find the right sort of business elephant within the next five years or so, the wait will have been worthwhile.

我们这种先准备资金,之后再买进扩张的政策,虽然会对我们短期间的盈余造成影响,例如我们之前取得10%成本的2.5亿美元,现在大概只能赚得6.5%的收益,中间的利差损失每个礼拜大概是16万美元,这对我们来说,只是个小数目,也不会迫使我们去从事一些短期高风险的投资,只要我们能在未来五年内找到理想的目标猎物,这一切等待都是值得的。

Miscellaneous

其它事项

We hope to buy more businesses that are similar to the ones we have, and we can use some help. If you have a business that fits the following criteria, call me or, preferably, write.

我们希望能够找到更多像我们现在拥有的企业,当然这需要一些帮助,如同你知道有公司符合以下的条件,打电话或者最好是写信给我。

(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有一千万美元)

(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)

(3)高股东报酬率(并且甚少举债)

(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)

(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)

(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)我们不会进行敌意的购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣 (通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。我们欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听,对于那些好的公司与好的经营阶层,我们可以提供一个好的归属。另一方面我们也持续接到一些不符合我们条件的询问,包括新事业、转机股、拍卖案以及最常见的中介案 (那些说你们要是能过碰一下面,一定会感兴趣之类的) 。在此重申我们对这些一点兴趣都没有。

Here's what we're looking for:

(1) large purchases (at least $10 million of after-tax earnings), (2) demonstrated consistent earning power (future projections are of little interest to us, nor are "turnaround" situations), (3) businesses earning good returns on equity while employing little or no debt, (4) management in place (we can't supply it), (5) simple businesses (if there's lots of technology, we won't understand it), (6) an offering price (we don't want to waste our time or that of the seller by talking, even preliminarily, about a transaction when price is unknown). We will not engage in unfriendly takeovers. We can promise complete confidentiality and a very fast answer - customarily within five minutes - as to whether we're interested. We prefer to buy for cash, but will consider issuing stock when we receive as much in intrinsic business value as we give. We invite potential sellers to check us out by contacting people with whom we have done business in the past. For the right business - and the right people - we can provide a good home. On the other hand, we frequently get approached about acquisitions that don't come close to meeting our tests: new ventures, turnarounds, auction-like sales, and the ever-popular (among brokers) "I'm-sure-something-will-work-out-if-you-people-get-to-know-each-other." None of these attracts us in the least. Besides being interested in the purchases of entire businesses as described above, we are also interested in the negotiated purchase of large, but not controlling, blocks of stock comparable to those we hold in Cap Cities and Salomon. We have a special interest in purchasing convertible preferreds as a long-term investment, as we did at Salomon.

除了以上买下整家公司的购并案外,我们也会考虑买进一大部份不具控制权的股份,就像我们在资本城与所罗门这两个Case一样,尤其是我们对于像这次购买所罗门一样的可转换特别股当作长期投资特别有兴趣。

接下来是一点记忆回顾,大部分Berkshire的大股东是在1969年

清算巴菲特合伙事业时取得本公司股份的,这些合伙的伙伴可能还记得当初在1962年,我曾经在巴菲特合伙事业所投资控制的Dempster-一家帮浦与农用机具制造公司,面临经营上重大的难题。

And now a bit of deja vu. Most of Berkshire's major stockholders received their shares at yearend 1969 in a liquidating distribution from Buffett Partnership, Ltd. Some of these former partners will remember that in 1962 I encountered severe managerial problems at Dempster Mill Manufacturing Co., a pump and farm implement manufacturing company that BPL controlled.

在当时我带着我无法解决的问题去找查理,就像是现在一样,查理建议我在加州他有一位朋友叫Harry Bottle非常脚踏实地,或许可以帮得上忙,我在当年四月去洛杉矶拜访他,一个礼拜后,他就被请到内布拉斯加州来管理Dempster,此后问题立刻获得解决,记得在1962年的年报中,我还特地将Harry封为年度风云人物。

At that time, like now, I went to Charlie with problems that were too tough for me to solve. Charlie suggested the solution might lie in a California friend of his, Harry Bottle, whose special knack was never forgetting the fundamental. I met Harry in Los Angeles on April 17, 1962, and on April 23 he was in Beatrice, Nebraska, running Dempster. Our problems disappeared almost immediately. In my 1962 annual letter to partners, I named Harry "Man of the Year."

24年后,场景搬到Berkshire 另外一家子公司K & W公司,一家专门生产自动机具的小公司,过去这家公司做得还不错,不过到了1985-1986年却突然发生状况,盲目追求达不到的东西,却放弃现有可以做的产品,负责管理监督K & W的查理,知道可以不必知会我,直接找到现年68岁的Harry,任命他为CEO,然后就静待结果出来,事实上他没有等多久,到了1987年隔年, K & W的获利就创下新高,比1986年成长三倍,由于获利提升,该公司所需的资金也就跟着减少,该公司的应收及存货水准减少了20%。

Fade to 24 years later: The scene is K & W Products, a small Berkshire subsidiary that produces automotive compounds. For years K & W did well, but in 1985-86 it stumbled badly, as it pursued the unattainable to the neglect of the achievable. Charlie, who oversees K & W, knew there was no need to consult me. Instead, he called Harry, now 68 years old, made him CEO, and sat back to await the inevitable. He didn't wait long. In 1987 K & W's profits set a record, up more than 300% from 1986. And, as profits went up, capital employed went down: K & W's investment in accounts receivable and inventories has decreased 20%.

所以要是在往后的十年、二十年,我们的被投资事业又发生问题时,你就知道谁的电话又会响了。

If we run into another managerial problem ten or twenty years down the road, you know whose phone will ring. About 97.2% of all eligible shares participated in Berkshire's 1987 shareholder-designated contributions program. Contributions made through the program were $4.9 million, and 2,050 charities were recipients.

大约有97.2%的有效股权参与1987年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约490万美元捐出的款项分配给2,050家慈善机构最近一项研究显示约有50%的美国大公司的捐赠计画是由董事会所决定,这等于是由代表公司所有股东的一小群人来决定公司资金捐给他们所偏爱的慈善机构,却从来不会去管股东们的意见,(我很怀疑若情况刚好相反,由股东们来决定这些董事口袋里的钱要捐给谁时,他们会有什么样的反应),当甲从乙的身上拿钱给丙时,若甲是立法者,则这个过程叫做课税,若甲是企业的主管或是经理人时,这就叫做是慈善,我们仍然坚信除非是捐给那些很明显对于公司有助益的单位时,应该要先征询股东们而非仅仅是经理人或是董事的意见。

A recent survey reported that about 50% of major American companies match charitable contributions made by directors (sometimes by a factor of three to one). In effect, these representatives of the owners direct funds to their favorite charities, and never consult the owners as to their charitable preferences. (I wonder how they would feel if the process were reversed and shareholders could invade the directors' pockets for charities favored by the shareholders.) When A takes money from B to give to C and A is a legislator, the process is called taxation. But when A is an officer or director of a corporation, it is called philanthropy. We continue to believe that contributions, aside from those with quite clear direct benefits to the company, should reflect the charitable preferences of owners rather than those of officers and directors.

我们敦促新加入的股东,仔细阅读年报上有关股东捐赠计画的详细内容,如果在未来年度内,你想要参加这类的计画,我们强烈建议你将股份登记在自己而不是受托人的名下,必须在1988年9月30日之前完成登记,才有权利参与1988年的计画。

We urge new shareholders to read the description of our shareholder-designated contributions program that appears on pages 54 and 55. If you wish to participate in future programs, we strongly urge that you immediately make sure your shares are registered in the name of the actual owner, not in "street" name or nominee name. Shares not so registered on September 30, l988 will be ineligible for the 1988 program.

去年总共有450位股东参加年度股东会,总计提出了60个左右精彩的问题,在许多公司股东会只是浪费时间,因为大多流于形式,不过我们的股东会却不一样,股东们非常具有建设性且带来了许多欢乐。

Last year we again had about 450 shareholders at our annual meeting. The 60 or so questions they asked were, as always, excellent. At many companies, the annual meeting is a waste of time because exhibitionists turn it into a sideshow. Ours, however, is different. It is informative for shareholders and fun for us. (At Berkshire's meetings, the exhibitionists are on the dais.) This year our meeting will be on May 23, 1988 in Omaha, and we hope that you come. The meeting provides the forum for you to ask any owner-related questions you may have, and we will keep answering until all (except those dealing with portfolio activities or other proprietary information) have been dealt with.

今年的股东会将在1988年5月23日在奥玛哈举行,我们希望你们都能来参加,这个会议提供一个场所让你能够提出任何与股东有关的问题,我们会一直回答到所有股东都满意为止(除了那些想要知道投资组合明牌或是内线消息的人)

Last year we rented two buses - for $100 - to take shareholders interested in the trip to the Furniture Mart. Your actions demonstrated your good judgment: You snapped up about $40,000 of bargains. Mrs. B regards this expense/sales ratio as on the high side and attributes it to my chronic inattention to costs and generally sloppy managerial practices. But, gracious as always, she has offered me another chance and we will again have buses available following the meeting. Mrs. B says you must beat last year's sales figures, and I have told her she won't be disappointed.

去年我们花了100元租两台巴士载着有兴趣的股东到家具广场,大家的行动展现了明智的抉择,总共买下了约4万美元的东西, B太太认为这样的营业费用比例太高,认为这都是我个人长久以来对于成本没有概念、管理松散的缘故,不过还是一样大方,今年她再次给我机会,在会后还是会有巴士等着各位,B太太希望我一定要打破去年的记录,而我也已经答应她不会让她失望。

一九八八

Our gain in net worth during 1988 was $569 million, or 20.0%. Over the last 24 years (that is, since present management took over), our per-share book value has grown from $19.46 to $2,974.52, or at a rate of 23.0% compounded annually.
本公司1988年的净值增加了五亿六千九百万美元,较去年增加了20.0%,而过去24年以来(自从现有经营阶层接手后),每股净值从19元成长到现在的2,974美元,年复合成长率约为23.0%。

We’ve emphasized in past reports that what counts, however, is intrinsic business value - the figure, necessarily an estimate, indicating what all of our constituent businesses are worth. By our calculations, Berkshire intrinsic business value significantly exceeds its book value. Over the 24 years, business value has grown somewhat faster than book value; in 1988, however, book value grew the faster, by a bit.
在过去的年报中我们一再强调真正重要的是企业的真实价值,它代表着我们旗下企业组成份子到底值多少钱?这个数字绝对是个估计数,根据我们内部的估算,目前Berkshire真实的价值已大幅超越其帐面价值,过去24年以来,企业价值成长的速度一直要比帐面价值成长的幅度要高一点,但在1988年情况有点不同,后者增加的幅度略高于前者。
Berkshire past rates of gain in both book value and business value were achieved under circumstances far different from those that now exist. Anyone ignoring these differences makes the same mistake that a baseball manager would were he to judge the future prospects of a 42-year-old center fielder on the basis of his lifetime batting average.
过去Berkshire真实与帐面价值成长的背景,与现在有很大的不同,若搞不清楚其间的差异,就好象是一位棒球教练在判断高龄42岁的中外野手未来潜力时,以他一生的平均打击率作为判断依据。
Important negatives affecting our prospects today are: (1) a less attractive stock market than generally existed over the past 24 years; (2) higher corporate tax rates on most forms of investment income; (3) a far more richly-priced market for the acquisition of businesses; and (4) industry conditions for Capital Cities/ABC, Inc., GEICO Corporation, and The Washington Post Company - Berkshire three permanent investments, constituting about one-half of our net worth - that range from slightly to materially less favorable than those existing five to ten years ago. All of these companies have superb management and strong properties. But, at current prices, their upside potential looks considerably less exciting to us today than it did some years ago.
今日我们所面临不利的因素主要有︰(1)目前的股票市场过热,股价相对偏高(2)企业投资利益的税负过高(3)企业被购并的价格偏高(4) Berkshire主要三大投资事业(约占本公司净值的一半)资本城/ABC、GEICO汽车保险与华盛顿邮报,个别的产业状况多多少少不若以往,虽然这些公司有杰出的管理与强势的资产,但以目前的股价来看,他们向上成长的潜力相对有限。
The major problem we face, however, is a growing capital base. You have  heard that from us before, but this problem, like age, grows in significance each year. (And also, just as with age, it’s better to have this problem continue to grow rather than to have it old.?
然而我们面对的主要问题还是不断增加的资金规模,先前各位也听过类似的说明,不过这个问题就好象是一个人的身体健康与年纪的关系一样,随着时间的流逝,问题也越严重,(当然在这种情况下,我们是希望这个问题越严重越好)
Four years ago I told you that we needed profits of $3.9 billion to achieve a 15% annual return over the decade then ahead. Today, for the next decade, a 15% return demands profits of $10.3 billion. That seems like a very big number to me and to Charlie Munger, Berkshire Vice Chairman and my partner. (Should that number indeed prove too big, Charlie will find himself, in future reports, retrospectively identified as the senior partner.)
四年前我曾告诉各位若在未来十年,Berkshire想要每年维持15%的报酬,我们总共约要有39亿美元的获利,时至今日,这个数字暴增到103亿美元,对查理与我来说,这实在是无法承担之重,(当然若这个数字事后发现真的过大,大家或许会在以后的报告中,查理可能会另外个别署名资深合伙人)
As a partial offset to the drag that our growing capital base exerts upon returns, we have a very important advantage now that we lacked 24 years ago. Then, all our capital was tied up in a textile business with inescapably poor economic characteristics. Today part of our capital is invested in some really exceptional businesses.

虽然资金规模会影响到最后的投资报酬率,但同时我们也拥有另外一项以前没有的优势,过去我们大部分的资金都被绑在没有多大经济效益的纺织事业之上,如今部份的资金已转移到一些相当不错的事业。去年我将他们取名叫做七个圣徒?水牛城日报、费区海默、寇比吸尘器、内布拉斯加家具量贩店、史考特费兹制造集团、喜斯糖果及世界百科全书等,今年七圣徒持续向前迈进,大家可以发现以历史投资成本的角度来看,他们的投资报酬实在是惊人,没有依靠财务杠杆,平均股东权益报酬率高达67%。
Last year we dubbed these operations the Sainted Seven: Buffalo News, Fechheimer, Kirby, Nebraska Furniture Mart, Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group, See, and World Book. In 1988 the Saints came marching in. You can see just how extraordinary their returns on capital were by examining the historical-cost financial statements on page 45, which combine the figures of the Sainted Seven with those of several smaller units. With no benefit from financial leverage, this group earned about 67% on average equity capital. In most cases the remarkable performance of these units arises partially from an exceptional business franchise; in all cases an exceptional management is a vital factor. The contribution Charlie and I make is to leave these managers alone.
虽然其中一部分的企业本身就是属于强势的企业,但优良的管理却是绝对必要的条件,查理跟我唯一可以做的就是让他们放手去干。
In my judgment, these businesses, in aggregate, will continue to produce superb returns. We’ll need these: Without this help Berkshire would not have a chance of achieving our 15% goal. You can be sure that our operating managers will deliver; the question mark in our future is whether Charlie and I can effectively employ the funds that they generate.
根据我个人的判断,这些企业总的来说,应该还会持续有好的表现,我们想要在往后年度继续维持15%报酬率的目标,绝对需要他们的支持,唯一的关键在于查理跟我是否能够有效地运用他们所贡献出来源源不绝的资金。
In that respect, we took a step in the right direction early in 1989 when we purchased an 80% interest in Borsheim, a jewelry business in Omaha. This purchase, described later in this letter, delivers exactly what we look for: an outstanding business run by people we like, admire, and trust. It’s a great way to start the year.
在这点我们做出了一个正确的决定,那就是买下位于奥玛哈Borsheim珠宝80%的股权,这项购并案会在后面说明,与我们当初的预期相符,一家优秀的企业由我们所欣赏且信任的人来经营,今年有一个好的开始。
Accounting Changes

会计原则变动
We have made a significant accounting change that was mandated for 1988, and likely will have another to make in 1990. When we move figures around from year to year, without any change in economic reality, one of our always-thrilling discussions of accounting is necessary.
1988年开始有一项重要的会计原则变动开始适用,展望1990年还会有一项变动,当经济现况没有改变,但会计帐面却必须将数字搬来搬去,我们一定会花一番工夫讨论一下影响层面。首先我习惯性的提出拒绝声明,虽然一般公认会计原则确有缺点,但我却必须坦承没有能力重新订出一套新的规则,虽然这套原则确有其先天性的限制,却不必就此废除,CEO大可以也应该将一般公认会计原则当作是对股东与债权人尽告知义务的开始而非结束;若他们只是提供阳春的财务报表,却没有附上经营分析所必要的关键讯息,部门经理人会发现会被总经理修理的很惨,同样的母公司的总经理是不是也应该向他的老板,也就是公司股东所有人,报告必要有用的信息。
First, Il offer my customary disclaimer: Despite the shortcomings of generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), I would hate to have the job of devising a better set of rules. The limitations of the existing set, however, need not be inhibiting: CEOs are free to treat GAAP statements as a beginning rather than an end to their obligation to inform owners and creditors - and indeed they should. After all, any manager of a subsidiary company would find himself in hot water if he reported barebones GAAP numbers that omitted key information needed by his boss, the parent corporation CEO. Why, then, should the CEO himself withhold information vitally useful to his bosses - the shareholder-owners of the corporation? What needs to be reported is data - whether GAAP, non-GAAP, or extra-GAAP - that helps financially-literate readers answer three key questions: (1) Approximately how much is this company worth? (2) What is the likelihood that it can meet its future obligations? and (3) How good a job are its managers doing, given the hand they have been dealt?
真正需要的是资料?不管是一般公认、非一般公认或是一般公认以外,可以帮助财务报表使用者可以了解三个问题︰(1)这家公司大概价值多少?(2)它达到未来目标的可能性有多大?(3)在现有条件下,经理人的工作表现如何?
In most cases, answers to one or more of these questions are somewhere between difficult and impossible to glean from the minimum GAAP presentation. The business world is simply too complex for a single set of rules to effectively describe economic reality for all enterprises, particularly those operating in a wide variety of businesses, such as Berkshire.
大部分的情况下,简单的财务数字并不能回答以上的问题,商业世界实在很难用一套简单的规则有效地来解释企业的经济实质状况,尤其是像Berkshire这种由许多各种不同产业组成集团。
Further complicating the problem is the fact that manymanagements view GAAP not as a standard to be met, but as an obstacle to overcome. Too often their accountants willingly assist them. (ow much says the client, s two plus two?? Replies the cooperative accountant, hat number did you have in mind?? Even honest and well-intentioned managements sometimes stretch GAAP a bit in order to present figures they think will more appropriately describe their performance. Both the smoothing of earnings and the ig bath quarter are hit lie? techniques employed by otherwise upright managements.
更复杂的是许多管理阶层不把一般公认会计原则当作是应该达到的标准,而是应该要克服的阻碍,且大多数的会计师也心甘情愿给予协助,当客户问到二加二等于几?配合的会计师可能会回答︰「那要看你想要多少?」即使是诚实且正直的管理阶层有时也会超越一般公认会计原则,以使得报表数字更符合他们认为应该有的表现,不管是让损益平滑一点或是某季特别突出,都是还算正直的经营阶层经常运用的做帐技巧。
Then there are managers who actively use GAAP to deceive and defraud. They know that many investors and creditors accept GAAP results as gospel. So these charlatans interpret the rules imaginatively and record business transactions in ways that technically comply with GAAP but actually display an economic illusion to the world.
另外还有一些不肖经理人专门利用一般公认会计原则来进行欺骗与贪污,他们很清楚许多投资人与债权人把一般公认会计原则当作圣经朝拜,所以这些骗徒运用丰富的想象力技巧性让交易记录符合一般公认会计原则,但却与实际的经济实质背道而驰。
As long as investors - including supposedly sophisticated institutions - place fancy valuations on reported arnings that march steadily upward, you can be sure that some managers and promoters will exploit GAAP to produce such numbers, no matter what the truth may be. Over the years, Charlie and I have observed many accounting-based frauds of staggering size. Few of the perpetrators have been punished; many have not even been censured. It has been far safer to steal large sums with a pen than small sums with a gun.
只要投资人,包含看起来复杂的专业投资机构,迷信稳定向上攀升的盈余数字,我们可以百分之百确定还会有经理人与拥护者不顾现实,继续滥用一般公认会计原则来满足投资人的需求,多年以来查理跟我看到许多会计诈骗案,鲜少有人因此被惩罚,有的甚至都没有被发现,用笔偷钱要比用枪抢劫要来的容易的多。
Under one major change mandated by GAAP for 1988, we have been required to fully consolidate all our subsidiaries in our balance sheet and earnings statement. In the past, Mutual Savings and Loan, and Scott Fetzer Financial (a credit company that primarily finances installment sales of World Book and Kirby products) were consolidated on a one-line basis. That meant we (1) showed our equity in their combined net worths as a single-entry asset on Berkshire consolidated balance sheet and (2) included our equity in their combined annual earnings as a single-line income entry in our consolidated statement of earnings. Now the rules require that we consolidate each asset and liability of these companies in our balance sheet and each item of their income and expense in our earnings statement.
1988年一般公认会计原则有一个很重大的转变,依新规定Berkshire必须将子公司与关系企业的资产与损益完全并到母公司的财务报表之上,在过去互助储贷与史考特费兹金融(主要从事世界百科全书与寇比吸尘器分期付款的信用公司),只须一次认列投资损益即可,意思是说(1)仅将被投资公司净值按投资比例以投资权益显示在Berkshire的合并资产负债表之上(2)仅将被投资公司年度损益按投资比例以投资利益显示在Berkshire的合并损益表之上,但是现在我们必须将被投资公司的资产与负债、营收与费用,放进合并的财务报表之上。
This change underscores the need for companies also to report segmented data: The greater the number of economically diverse business operations lumped together in conventional financial statements, the less useful those presentations are and the less able investors are to answer the three questions posed earlier. Indeed, the only reason we ever prepare consolidated figures at Berkshire is to meet outside requirements. On the other hand, Charlie and I constantly study our segment data.
这项转变低估了公司也要报告部门别信息,企业形态越复杂的公司,其按传统财务报表所加总出来的数字越没有意义,越没有办法让投资人回答前面所提的三个问题,事实上在Berkshire我们会准备合并数字的唯一原因就是要符合外部规定,查理跟我看的则是另一套部门别的信息。
Now that we are required to bundle more numbers in our GAAP statements, we have decided to publish additional supplementary information that we think will help you measure both business value and managerial performance. (Berkshire ability to discharge its obligations to creditors - the third question we listed - should be obvious, whatever statements you examine.) In these supplementary presentations, we will not necessarily follow GAAP procedures, or even corporate structure. Rather, we will attempt to lump major business activities in ways that aid analysis but do not swamp you with detail. Our goal is to give you important information in a form that we would wish to get it if our roles were reversed.
现在我们被要求在财务报表上将更多的数字混在一起,我们现在决定公布更多的补充信息,有助于帮助各位来衡量企业价值与管理当局的表现,Berkshire将责任转移给债权人的能力?我们提到的第三个问题,应该很明确,不管是在看什么样的报表,在这些补充信息中,我们不一定会依照一般公认会计原则,甚至不会以公司别来区分,相反地我们会试着将同性质的企业汇总有助于大家分析而不是被一大堆信息所掩没,我们的目标是设身处地的为各位设想,给各位我们认为重要的讯息。
On pages 41-47 we show separate combined balance sheets and earnings statements for: (1) our subsidiaries engaged in finance-type operations, which are Mutual Savings and Scott Fetzer Financial; (2) our insurance operations, with their major investment positions itemized; (3) our manufacturing, publishing and retailing businesses, leaving aside certain non-operating assets and purchase-price accounting adjustments; and (4) an all-other category that includes the non-operating assets (primarily marketable securities) held by the companies in (3) as well as various assets and debts of the Wesco and Berkshire parent companies.
下表我们依(1)金融事业,包含互助储贷与史考特财务公司(2)保险事业,依投资部位分门别类(3)制造、出版、零售事业,去除某些非营业资产与购买法会计调整数(4)其它项目,包含前述非营业资产(主要是有价证券投资)及Wesco与Berkshire母公司所持有的资产与负债
If you combine the earnings and the net worths of these four segments, you will derive totals matching those shown on our GAAP statements. However, we want to emphasize that our new presentation does not fall within the purview of our auditors, who in no way bless it. (In fact, they may be horrified; I don’t want to ask.)
如果将以上四类的盈余与净值加总,你将得到与一般公认会计原则一致的总数,但是我们必须强调的是这种新的表示方法并未经过会计师看过,最好是不要,因为他们要是看到这种报表,一定会被吓个半死。
I referred earlier to a major change in GAAP that is expected in 1990. This change relates to the calculation of deferred taxes, and is both complicated and controversial - so much so that its imposition, originally scheduled for 1989, was postponed for a year.
先前我曾提到在1990年会有另一项会计原则的重大变动,主要与递延所得税有关,这原则相当的复杂且极具争议性,以致于原定计画于1989年实施延后一年。
When implemented, the new rule will affect us in various ways. Most important, we will be required to change the way we calculate our liability for deferred taxes on the unrealized appreciation of stocks held by our insurance companies.
当这项原则开始实施后,对我们有几个方面,最重要的一点就是我们必须重新修正旗下保险公司所持有的未实现股票资本利得,其计算递延所得税负债的方式,
Right now, our liability is layered. For the unrealized appreciation that dates back to 1986 and earlier years, $1.2 billion, we have booked a 28% tax liability. For the unrealized appreciation built up since, $600 million, the tax liability has been booked at 34%. The difference reflects the increase in tax rates that went into effect in 1987.
原先我们在这方面的负债分作好几层,对于1986年以前帐列未实现利益,大约在12亿美元左右,系以28%的税率估算,对于1986年之后的帐列未实现利益,大约在6亿美元左右,系以34%的税率估算,1987年起调整税率的差异反应税负的差异。
It now appears, however, that the new accounting rule will require us to establish the entire liability at 34% in 1990, taking the charge against our earnings. Assuming no change in tax rates by 1990, this step will reduce our earnings in that year (and thereby our reported net worth) by $71 million. The proposed rule will also affect other items on our balance sheet, but these changes will have only a minor impact on earnings and net worth.
现在看起来,新的会计原则要求我们从1990年开始必须将所有未实现利益的预估税率订在34%,经估算光是这一项做法就会使得我们的年度盈余与净值减少七千多万美元,还不包含其它大大小小的影响。
We have no strong views about the desirability of this change in calculation of deferred taxes. We should point out, however, that neither a 28% nor a 34% tax liability precisely depicts economic reality at Berkshire since we have no plans to sell the stocks in which we have the great bulk of our gains.
其实我们不认为这样转变有其必要性,因为对于Berkshire来说不管税率是28%或是34%,都不能反应我们公司的实质现况,因为我们从来不考虑出售我们具有庞大未实现利益的股票。
To those of you who are uninterested in accounting, I apologize for this dissertation. I realize that many of you do not pore over our figures, but instead hold Berkshire primarily because you know that: (1) Charlie and I have the bulk of our money in Berkshire; (2) we intend to run things so that your gains or losses are in direct proportion to ours; and (3) the record has so far been satisfactory. There is nothing necessarily wrong with this kind of approach to investing. Other shareholders, however, prefer analysis approach and we want to supply the information they need. In our own investing, we search for situations in which both approaches give us the same answer.
对于那些对会计不感兴趣的人,很抱歉耽误各位的时间,我很清楚你们当中有很多根本不会仔细去看数字,但却仍持续支持我们,因为你们知道(1)查理跟我本身的身家也都在里面(2)我们绝对会与各位共享荣枯(3)到目前为止先前的记录还算令人满意。事实上这种完全信任的投资方法并没有什么不好,但也有一些股东比较喜欢深入分析的方式,因此我们也有必要提供足够的信息给他们,至于Berkshire本身在做投资时,则是两种方法并用,重点在于能不能得到满意的答案。
Sources of Reported Earnings

帐列盈余的来源
In addition to supplying you with our new four-sector accounting material, we will continue to list the major sources of Berkshire reported earnings just as we have in the past.
除了提供给各位最新四个部门的会计资料,我们一如往常还是会提列出Berkshire帐列盈余的主要来源
In the following table, amortization of Goodwill and other major purchase-price accounting adjustments are not charged against the specific businesses to which they apply but are instead aggregated and shown separately. This procedure lets you view the earnings of our businesses as they would have been reported had we not purchased them. Ie explained in past reports why this form of presentation seems to us to be more useful to investors and managers than the standard GAAP presentation, which makes purchase-price adjustments on a business-by-business basis. The total net earnings we show in the table are, of course, identical to the GAAP total in our audited financial statements.
在下表商誉的摊销数与购买法会计调整数会从个别被投资公司分离出来,单独加总列示,之所以这样做是为了让旗下各事业的盈余状况,不因我们的投资而有所影响,过去我一再地强调我们认为这样的表达方式,较之一般公认会计原则,不管是对投资者或是管理者来说,更有帮助,当然最后损益加总的数字仍然会与经会计师查核的数字一致。
Further information about these businesses is given in the Business Segment section on pages 32-34, and in the Management Discussion section on pages 36-40. In these sections you also will find our segment earnings reported on a GAAP basis. For information on Wesco businesses, I urge you to read Charlie Munger letter, which starts on page 52. It contains the best description I have seen of the events that produced the present savings-and-loan crisis. Also, take special note of Dave Hillstrom performance at Precision Steel Warehouse, a Wesco subsidiary. Precision operates in an extremely competitive industry, yet Dave consistently achieves good returns on invested capital. Though data is lacking to prove the point, I think it is likely that his performance, both in 1988 and years past, would rank him number one among his peers.
年报中还有企业个别部门的信息,有关Wesco公司的信息,我强烈建议大家可以看看查理孟格所写的年报,里头包含我看过对储贷机构危机事件写得最贴切的一篇文章,另外也可以顺便看看Precision钢铁厂,这家Wesco的子公司所处的产业竞争相当激烈,但经理人Dave仍然努力创造相当不错的绩效,虽然手头上缺乏资料来证明,但我相信他的表现绝对不比其它同侪逊色。


 
 
 
 
1988
 
 
 
 
 
Unit:US'000
 

 
 
 
 
Earnings Before Income Tax
 
After Income Tax
 

 
 
Percent
 
Total
 
Berkshire Share
 
Berkshire Share
 

Earnings from Operation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Insurance Group
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Underwriting
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
(11,081)
 
 
 
(1,045)
 

Net Investment Income
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
231,250
 
 
 
197,779
 

Buffalio News
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
42,429
 
 
 
25,462
 

Fechheimer
 
 
 
 
 
14,152
 
 
 
7,720
 

Kirby
 
 
 
 
 
26,891
 
 
 
17,842
 

Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
18,439
 
 
 
9,099
 

Scott Fetzer-Diversified
 
 
 
 
 
28,542
 
 
 
17,640
 

See's Candies
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
32,473
 
 
 
19,671
 

Wesco Financial Corporation-Parent
 
#DIV/0!
 
 
 
16,133
 
 
 
10,650
 

World Book
 
 
 
 
 
27,890
 
 
 
18,021
 

Amortization of Goodwill
 
 
 
 
 
(2,806)
 
 
 
(2,806)
 

Interest on Debt
 
 
 
 
 
(35,613)
 
 
 
(23,212)
 

Shareholder's Contribution
 
 
 
 
 
(4,966)
 
 
 
(3,217)
 

Other
 
 
 
 
 
34,717
 
 
 
19,837
 

 
 
 
 
0
 
418,450
 
 
 
313,441
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Realized Securities Gain
 
 
 
 
 
131,671
 
 
 
85,829
 

Total Earnings-all entities
 
 
 
0
 
550,121
 
 
 
399,270
 

*不包含史考特飞兹金融集团的利息费用

*Excludes interest expense of Scott Fetzer Financial Group.

我们旗下各项营运事业所创造的盈余,不管是依绝对值或是与同业相较,实在是相当出色,对此我们衷心感谢这些辛苦的经理人,你我应该感到庆幸能与他们一起共事。
The earnings achieved by our operating businesses are superb, whether measured on an absolute basis or against those of their competitors. For that we thank our operating managers: You and I are fortunate to be associated with them. At Berkshire, associations like these last a long time. We do not remove superstars from our lineup merely because they have attained a specified age - whether the traditional 65, or the 95 reached by Mrs. B on the eve of Hanukkah in 1988. Superb managers are too scarce a resource to be discarded simply because a cake gets crowded with candles. Moreover, our experience with newly-minted MBAs has not been that great. Their academic records always look terrific and the candidates always know just what to say; but too often they are short on personal commitment to the company and general business savvy. It difficult to teach a new dog old tricks.
在Berkshire,这样的关系可以维持相当长久,我们不会因为这些杰出优秀的明星经理人年纪到了一定程度就把他们给换掉,不管是65岁或是B太太在1988年所打破的95岁上限,明星的经理人实在是可遇不可求的稀罕珍宝,他们就像是插满蜡烛的蛋糕,如何叫人舍得把他们丢弃,相较之下,我们对于新进的MBA企管硕士的评价就没有那么高了,他们的学术经历看起来总是很吓人,讲起话来头头是道,但个人对于企业长期发展的投入却相当有限,实在是很难去教菜狗那套老伎俩。
Here an update on our major non-insurance operations:

以下是我们非保险部门的最新营运状况︰
At Nebraska Furniture Mart, Mrs. B (Rose Blumkin) and her cart roll on and on. She been the boss for 51 years, having started the business at 44 with $500. (Think what she would have done with $1,000!) With Mrs. B, old age will always be ten years away.
在内布拉斯加家具店方面,B太太坐着她的轮椅持续运转,自从44岁那年以500块美金开始创业当老板,至今已有51个年头,(要是当初是用1,000块的话,现在可能更不得了),对于B太太来说,就是再多十岁也不嫌老。
The Mart, long the largest home furnishings store in the country, continues to grow. In the fall, the store opened a detached 20,000 square foot Clearance Center, which expands our ability to offer bargains in all price ranges.
这家全美最大的家具量贩店到现在还在持续成长,去年秋天,又新开了一家占地20,000平方英呎的清洁用品中心,让我们的产品线不论是各种价格都应有尽有。
Recently Dillard, one of the most successful department store operations in the country, entered the Omaha market. In many of its stores, Dillard runs a full furniture department, undoubtedly doing well in this line. Shortly before opening in Omaha, however, William Dillard, chairman of the company, announced that his new store would not sell furniture. Said he, referring to NFM: we don’t want to compete with them. We think they are about the best there is.?
最近Dillard一家在全美地区经营相当成功的百货公司打算进军奥玛哈地区,在它其它主要的分店都设有家具部门,事实上他们在这方面也做的相当成功,不过就在其奥玛哈分店开幕的前夕,Dillard总裁William先生却宣布这家分店决定不卖家具,他特别提到NFM,表示你绝对不会想要与它竞争,我想它在当地已经是最强的了。
At the Buffalo News we extol the value of advertising, and our policies at NFM prove that we practice what we preach. Over the past three years NFM has been the largest ROP advertiser in the Omaha World-Herald. (ROP advertising is the kind printed in the paper, as contrasted to the preprinted-insert kind.) In no other major market, to my knowledge, is a home furnishings operation the leading customer of the newspaper. At times, we also run large ads in papers as far away as Des Moines, Sioux City and Kansas City - always with good results. It truly does pay to advertise, as long as you have something worthwhile to offer.
水牛城报纸我们赞扬广告的价值,而我们在NFM的政策则是证明我们所宣扬的确实可行,过去三年来,NFM是奥玛哈世界先锋报的最大广告客户,(ROP是指直接印在报纸而非夹报式的广告),据我所知,除此之外没有一家报纸的主要广告客户是家具商,同时我们也在堪萨斯等地区刊登广告,所得到的反应也相当不错,广告当然有其效果,只要你所要介绍的东西值得推荐。
Mrs. B’s son, Louie, and his boys, Ron and Irv, complete the winning Blumkin team. It a joy to work with this family. All its members have character that matches their extraordinary abilities.
B太太的儿子路易,还有他几个小孩组成了一支梦幻队伍,跟他们一起共事实在是一种享受,所有的成员品格与才能兼具。
Last year I stated unequivocally that pre-tax margins at The Buffalo News would fall in 1988. That forecast would have proved correct at almost any other newspaper our size or larger. But Stan Lipsey - bless him - has managed to make me look foolish.
去年我曾明确地表示水牛城日报1988年的税前盈余一定会下滑,事实证明要不是有Stan Lipsey,结果可能会如我所预测,与其它同规模的报纸同样地沉沦,很高兴Stan让我看起来很愚蠢。
Though we increased our prices a bit less than the industry average last year, and though our newsprint costs and wage rates rose in line with industry norms, Stan actually improved margins a tad. No one in the newspaper business has a better managerial record. He has achieved it, furthermore, while running a paper that gives readers an extraordinary amount of news. We believe that our ewshole?percentage - the portion of the paper devoted to news - is bigger than that of any other dominant paper of our size or larger. The percentage was 49.5% in 1988 versus 49.8% in 1987. We are committed to keeping it around 50%, whatever the level or trend of profit margins.
虽然我们去年我们调涨的价格较同业水准略低,同时印刷与工资成本调整的幅度与同业一致,但Stan还是硬生生让毛利率又扩大一些,在新闻业没有其它人可以像他这样有更好的经营绩效,且同时还能够让读者得到如此丰富的新闻,我们相信我们自己的新闻比率,绝对是同样规模或甚至更大报纸中最高的,1988年49.5%,不管获利状况如此,我们一定会努力将这个比率维持在50%上下。
Charlie and I have loved the newspaper business since we were youngsters, and we have had great fun with the News in the 12 years since we purchased it. We were fortunate to find Murray Light, a top-flight editor, on the scene when we arrived and he has made us proud of the paper ever since.
查理跟我在年轻的时候就很热爱新闻事业,而买下水牛城报纸的12年来,让我们渡过许多快乐时光,我们很幸运能够找到像Murray这样杰出的总编辑,让我们一入主水牛城报纸后,便深深引以为傲。
See’s Candies sold a record 25.1 million pounds in 1988. Prospects did not look good at the end of October, but excellent Christmas volume, considerably better than the record set in 1987, turned the tide.
喜斯糖果在1988年总共销售了2,510万磅重的糖果,本来在十月前整个销售前景看起来不太乐观,但拜圣诞节旺季特别旺所致,整个局势跟着扭转。
As we have told you before, See’s business continues to become more Christmas-concentrated. In 1988, the Company earned a record 90% of its full-year profits in December: $29 million out of $32.5 million before tax. (It enough to make you believe in Santa Claus.) December deluge of business produces a modest seasonal bulge in Berkshire corporate earnings. Another small bulge occurs in the first quarter, when most World Book annuals are sold.
就像我们以前告诉各位的,喜斯的糖果旺季越来越向圣诞节集中,去年光是12月的税前获利2,900万就占全年度3,250万的90%,(如此你应该相信圣诞老公公真的存在了吧),十二月的旺季使得Berkshire第四季的盈余看起来相当不错,另外第一季则是因为世界百科全书年度出版所以也会有一波小高潮。
Charlie and I put Chuck Huggins in charge of See about five minutes after we bought the company. Upon reviewing his record, you may wonder what took us so long.
查理跟我是在买下喜斯糖果五分钟之后,决定为Chuck Huggins负责这家公司的管理,在看过他这些年来的绩效之后,你可能会怀疑为何我们要考虑那么久!
At Fechheimer, the Heldmans - Bob, George, Gary, Roger and Fred - are the Cincinnati counterparts of the Blumkins. Neither furniture retailing nor uniform manufacturing has inherently attractive economics. In these businesses, only exceptional managements can deliver high returns on invested capital. And that exactly what the five Heldmans do. (As Mets announcer Ralph Kiner once said when comparing pitcher Steve Trout to his father, Dizzy Trout, the famous Detroit Tigers pitcher: here a lot of heredity in that family.?
在费区海默,Heldmans家族就好象是B太太家族的辛辛那提版,不管是家具业或者是制服业都不会很有吸引力的行业,也只有好的管理才能让股东们获得好的投资报酬,这正是Heldmans五位家族成员为Berkshire所作的贡献,身为职棒大都会队的发言人,Ralph Kiner曾说比较该队投手Steve Trout与他的父亲Dizzy Trout也是老虎队名投手,你就会发现虎父无犬子。
Fechheimer made a fairly good-sized acquisition in 1988. Charlie and I have such confidence in the business savvy of the Heldman family that we okayed the deal without even looking at it. There are very few managements anywhere - including those running the top tier companies of the Fortune 500 - in which we would exhibit similar confidence.
费区海默在1988年进行了一项规模颇大的购并案,查理跟我对于他们相当有信心,所以我们连看都没有看就同意了这项交易,很少有经营阶层,即便是财星五百大企业也好,能得到我们这样的信任。
Because of both this acquisition and some internal growth, sales at Fechheimer should be up significantly in 1989.

因为这项购并案与内部本身的成长,费区海默的营业额可望大幅成长。
All of the operations managed by Ralph Schey - World Book, Kirby, and The Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group - performed splendidly in 1988. Returns on the capital entrusted to Ralph continue to be exceptional.
所有Ralph Schey所管理的事业,包含世界百科全书、寇比吸尘器与史考特费兹制造集团,在1988年的表现皆相当出色,投资其上的资金也获得相当不错的报酬。
Within the Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group, particularly fine progress was recorded at its largest unit, Campbell Hausfeld. This company, the country leading producer of small and medium-sized air compressors, has more than doubled earnings since 1986.
在史考特费兹制造集团当中,又以Campbell家用器具最突出,这家全美最大的中小型压缩机自从1986年来每年盈余都呈倍数成长。
Unit sales at both Kirby and World Book were up significantly in 1988, with export business particularly strong. World Book became available in the Soviet Union in September, when that country largest American book store opened in Moscow. Ours is the only general encyclopedia offered at the store.
寇比吸尘器与世界百科全书的1988年销售数量都大幅成长,尤其在外销部份更是强劲,世界百科全书在九月配合莫斯科当地最大的一家美国百货公司开幕,正式在苏联推出,成为该店唯一展示的一套百科全书。
Ralph personal productivity is amazing: In addition to running 19 businesses in superb fashion, he is active at The Cleveland Clinic, Ohio University, Case Western Reserve, and a venture capital operation that has spawned sixteen Ohio-based companies and resurrected many others. Both Ohio and Berkshire are fortunate to have Ralph on their side.
Ralph个人的工作效率真是惊人,除了同时经营19项事业之外,他还投入相当的时间在克里夫兰医院、Ohio大学等单位,另外还负责一个创投,创设了16家位于Ohio的新公司,他可以称的上是Ohio与Berkshire之宝。

Borsheim

波仙珠宝
It was in 1983 that Berkshire purchased an 80% interest in The Nebraska Furniture Mart. Your Chairman blundered then by neglecting to ask Mrs. B a question any schoolboy would have thought of: are there any more at home like you??Last month I corrected the error: We are now 80% partners with another branch of the family.
Berkshire是在1983年买下内布拉斯加家具店80%的股权,当时我忘了问B太太一个连小学生都会想到的问题,你还有没有其它兄弟姊妹,上个月我补救了这个错误,现在我们又成为另一个家族分支80%的股东。
After Mrs. B came over from Russia in 1917, her parents and five siblings followed. (Her two other siblings had preceded her.) Among the sisters was Rebecca Friedman who, with her husband, Louis, escaped in 1922 to the west through Latvia in a journey as perilous as Mrs. B earlier odyssey to the east through Manchuria. When the family members reunited in Omaha they had no tangible assets. However, they came equipped with an extraordinary combination of brains, integrity, and enthusiasm for work - and that all they needed. They have since proved themselves invincible.
当B太太1917年从苏俄往东经满州一路逃到美国之后,她的双亲与五位兄弟姊妹也陆续来到美国,其中她有一个姊妹Rebecca在1922年跟着丈夫Friedman冒着生命危险往西途经拉脱维亚,当家族在奥玛哈重新团聚时大家一无所有且身无分文,然而只要身具智能、品格与热情一切就已足够,后来证明他们所向无敌。
In 1948 Mr. Friedman purchased Borsheim, a small Omaha jewelry store. He was joined in the business by his son, Ike, in 1950 and, as the years went by, Ike son, Alan, and his sons-in-law, Marvin Cohn and Donald Yale, came in also.
1948年Friedman先生买下奥玛哈地区一家叫波仙的小珠宝店,后来他的儿子与女婿陆续加入。
You won’t be surprised to learn that this family brings to the jewelry business precisely the same approach that the Blumkins bring to the furniture business. The cornerstone for both enterprises is Mrs. B creed: sell cheap and tell the truth.?Other fundamentals at both businesses are: (1) single store operations featuring huge inventories that provide customers with an enormous selection across all price ranges, (2) daily attention to detail by top management, (3) rapid turnover, (4) shrewd buying, and (5) incredibly low expenses. The combination of the last three factors lets both stores offer everyday prices that no one in the country comes close to matching.
你应该不难预料,这个家族为当地珠宝业所带来的影响与B太太的情况相近,两家店共同的特色就是东西实在又价美物廉,另外共通的特色还有(1)单店经营,但货品样式价格种类齐全,满足消费者各式需求(2)老板每天专心经营(3)货品周转快速(4)精明的采购(5)费用开销难以想象地低。后面三项特点让店内产品的售价,全美其它地方都得比。
Most people, no matter how sophisticated they are in other matters, feel like babes in the woods when purchasing jewelry. They can judge neither quality nor price. For them only one rule makes sense: If you don know jewelry, know the jeweler.
大部分的人们不管在其它行业多么学有专精,但是遇到买珠宝首饰时,就像是迷失在森林里的小孩子一样,不会判断东西的品质好坏与价格高低,对这些人来说,只要记住一条,不懂珠宝没有关系,只要认识珠宝商就好。
I can assure you that those who put their trust in Ike Friedman and his family will never be disappointed. The way in which we purchased our interest in their business is the ultimate testimonial. Borsheim had no audited financial statements; nevertheless, we didn take inventory, verify receivables or audit the operation in any way. Ike simply told us what was so -- and on that basis we drew up a one-page contract and wrote a large check.
我敢保证大家只要放心交给Friedman家族,一定不会让各位失望,我们购买波仙股权的方式就是最好的证明,波仙没有会计师查核报告,也没有盘点存货、验证应收帐款或是做任何方式的查核,他们只是简单地告诉我们如何如何,于是双方就草拟的一页简单的合约,并由我们开出一大笔金额的支票。
Business at Borsheim has mushroomed in recent years as the reputation of the Friedman family has spread. Customers now come to the store from all over the country. Among them have been some friends of mine from both coasts who thanked me later for getting them there.
随着Friedman家族声誉的远播,近年来波仙珠宝的生意越做越大,客户从美国各地远道而来,其中也包含我一些从东西两岸来的朋友,他们也都很感谢我能带他们去参观波仙。
Borsheim new links to Berkshire will change nothing in the way this business is run. All members of the Friedman family will continue to operate just as they have before; Charlie and I will stay on the sidelines where we belong. And when we say all members the words have real meaning. Mr. and Mrs. Friedman, at 88 and 87, respectively, are in the store daily. The wives of Ike, Alan, Marvin and Donald all pitch in at busy times, and a fourth generation is beginning to learn the ropes.
波仙的营运模式并不会因为Berkshire的加入而有所改变,所有的家族成员仍将持续在各自的岗位上奋斗,查理跟我会站在旁边默默支持,事实上所有的成员包含高龄88岁与87岁的老先生与老太太,仍然每天到店里工作,其它儿子媳妇也是从早忙到晚,家族的第四代已正准备开始学习接班。
It is great fun to be in business with people you have long admired. The Friedmans, like the Blumkins, have achieved success because they have deserved success. Both families focus on what right for the customer and that, inevitably, works out well for them, also. We couldn have better partners.
跟你所欣赏的人一起共事实在是一件很大的乐趣,Friedmans家族的成功就像是B太太家族的成功一样,实至名归,两个家族都坚持对客户有益的事之上,同时对他们自己也有很大的益处,这是我们最好的事业伙伴。
Insurance Operations

保险事业营运
Shown below is an updated version of our usual table presenting key figures for the insurance industry:

下表是有关保险事业的几项主要的数据更新
Statutory

Yearly Change Combined Ratio Yearly Change Inflation Rate in Premiums After Policyholder in Incurred Measured by

Written (%) Dividends Losses (%) GNP Deflator (%)


1981
 
1982
 
1983
 
1984
 
1985
 
1986
 
1987
 
1988(Est.)
 

3.8
 
3.7
 
5.0
 
8.5
 
22.1
 
22.2
 
9.4
 
3.9
 

106.0
 
109.6
 
112.0
 
118.0
 
116.3
 
108.0
 
104.6
 
105.4
 

6.5
 
8.4
 
6.8
 
16.9
 
16.1
 
13.5
 
7.8
 
4.2
 

9.6
 
6.4
 
3.8
 
3.7
 
3.2
 
2.7
 
3.3
 
3.6
 

Source: A.M. Best Co.

The combined ratio represents total insurance costs (losses incurred plus expenses) compared to revenue from premiums: A ratio below 100 indicates an underwriting profit, and one above 100 indicates a loss. When the investment income that an insurer earns from holding on to policyholders?funds (he float? is taken into account, a combined ratio in the 107-111 range typically produces an overall break-even result, exclusive of earnings on the funds provided by shareholders.
综合比率代表的是保险的总成本(损失加上费用)占保费收入的比率,100以下代表会有承销利益,100以上代表会有承销损失,若把持有保费收入浮存金(扣除股东权益部份所产生的盈余)所产生的投资收益列入考量,损益两平的范围大概是在107-111之间。
For the reasons laid out in previous reports, we expect the industry incurred losses to grow by about 10% annually, even in years when general inflation runs considerably lower. If premium growth meanwhile materially lags that 10% rate, underwriting losses will mount, though the industry tendency to under reserve when business turns bad may obscure their size for a time. As the table shows, the industry underwriting loss grew in 1988. This trend is almost certain to continue - and probably will accelerate - for at least two more years.
基于前几次年报所说明的理由,即使是通货膨胀在这几年来相对温和,我们预期保险业每年损失增加的比率约在10%左右,若是保费收入成长没有到达10%以上,损失一定会增加,虽然保险公司在景气不好时,会习惯性地将损失暂时隐藏起来,如附表所示,1988年产业整体的损失确实增加,而这个趋势应该会继续持续下去,甚至在未来两年还会加速恶化。
The property-casualty insurance industry is not only subnormally profitable, it is subnormally popular. (As Sam Goldwyn philosophized: n life, one must learn to take the bitter with the sour.? One of the ironies of business is that many relatively-unprofitable industries that are plagued by inadequate prices habitually find themselves beat upon by irate customers even while other, hugely profitable industries are spared complaints, no matter how high their prices.
产险业的获利情况不但是相当的低,而且也是不太受尊重的行业,(就像是山姆高德温曾说一个人要学会体验人生的苦与乐,不过这行很讽刺的是,做的要死要活的同时,还要被客户糟蹋,不像有些赚翻了的行业,东西明明贵的要死,却是一个愿打,一个愿挨)
Take the breakfast cereal industry, whose return on invested capital is more than double that of the auto insurance industry (which is why companies like Kellogg and General Mills sell at five times book value and most large insurers sell close to book). The cereal companies regularly impose price increases, few of them related to a significant jump in their costs. Yet not a peep is heard from consumers. But when auto insurers raise prices by amounts that do not even match cost increases, customers are outraged. If you want to be loved, it clearly better to sell high-priced corn flakes than low-priced auto insurance.
以早餐麦片为例,它的资产报酬率是汽车保险业的一倍(这也是为什么家乐氏与通用磨坊的股价净值比是五倍,而保险业者的股价净值比仅为一倍),麦片公司常常在调整产品售价,即便其生产成本没什么变,但消费者却连一个屁都不吭一声,但要是换做是保险业者,就算只是反映成本稍微调整一下价格,保户马上就会生气地跳起来,所以若你识相,最好是选择去卖高价的玉米片,而不是低价的汽车保险。
The antagonism that the public feels toward the industry can have serious consequences: Proposition 103, a California initiative passed last fall, threatens to push auto insurance prices down sharply, even though costs have been soaring. The price cut has been suspended while the courts review the initiative, but the resentment that brought on the vote has not been suspended: Even if the initiative is overturned, insurers are likely to find it tough to operate profitably in California. (Thank heavens the citizenry isn mad at bonbons: If Proposition 103 applied to candy as well as insurance, See would be forced to sell its product for $5.76 per pound. rather than the $7.60 we charge - and would be losing money by the bucketful.)
一般大众对于保险业的敌视会造成严重的后果,去年秋天加州通过的一项103提案,虽然成本一再上涨,却还威胁要将汽车保费价格大幅压低,所幸法院后来检视这项提案予以搁置,但这次投票所带来的冲击未曾稍减,保险业者在加州已很难再有营运获利的空间,(感谢老天还好加州人没有对巧克力糖果感到反感,若是103提案也如保险般适用于糖果的话,喜斯可能被迫以每磅5.76元而不是现在的每磅7.6元,果真如此,喜斯可能就要亏大钱了)
The immediate direct effects on Berkshire from the initiative are minor, since we saw few opportunities for profit in the rate structure that existed in California prior to the vote. However, the forcing down of prices would seriously affect GEICO, our 44%-owned investee, which gets about 10% of its premium volume from California. Even more threatening to GEICO is the possibility that similar pricing actions will be taken in other states, through either initiatives or legislation.
对Berkshire来说,这项法案的短期影响不大,因为即使在这法案之前,加州现行的费率结构也很难让我找到有获利的商机,然而这项压低保费的做法却会直接影响到我们持有44%股权的GEICO,约有10%2的保费收入系来自加州,更具威胁的是若其它州,不管是透过提案或是立法的方式,也跟进采取类似的行动,
If voters insist that auto insurance be priced below cost, it eventually must be sold by government. Stockholders can subsidize policyholders for a short period, but only taxpayers can subsidize them over the long term. At most property-casualty companies, socialized auto insurance would be no disaster for shareholders. Because of the commodity characteristics of the industry, most insurers earn mediocre returns and therefore have little or no economic goodwill to lose if they are forced by government to leave the auto insurance business. But GEICO, because it is a low-cost producer able to earn high returns on equity, has a huge amount of economic goodwill at risk. In turn, so do we.
若民众坚持汽车保险费的价格一定要低于成本,则最后可能要由政府直接来负责,股东或可暂时支应保户,但只有纳税人可以长久地给予支助,对大部分的产物意外险业者来说,社会化的汽车保险对于其股东不会有太大影响,因为由于这个产业是属于大众产品,保险业者所赚的投资报酬平平,所以若因此被政府强迫退出市场,也不会有太大的商誉损失,但GEICO就不一样了,由于它的成本低,相对地可以获得高报酬,所以可能会有很大的潜在商誉损失,而这当然会连带影响到我们。
At Berkshire, in 1988, our premium volume continued to fall, and in 1989 we will experience a large decrease for a special reason: The contract through which we receive 7% of the business of Fireman Fund expires on August 31. At that time, we will return to Fireman Fund the unearned premiums we hold that relate to the contract. This transfer of funds will show up in our remiums written?account as a negative $85 million or so and will make our third-quarter figures look rather peculiar. However, the termination of this contract will not have a significant effect on profits.
在1988年Berkshire的保费收入持续减少,到了1989年我们预期保费收入还会大幅下滑,一方面是因为消防人员退休基金即将于八月底到期,届时依合约我们必须将未到期的保费退还,估计总共退回的金额8,500万美元,这将使得我们第三季的数字看起来有点奇怪,当然这对于我们公司本身的获利不会造成太大的影响。
Berkshire underwriting results continued to be excellent in 1988. Our combined ratio (on a statutory basis and excluding structured settlements and financial reinsurance) was 104. Reserve development was favorable for the second year in a row, after a string of years in which it was very unsatisfactory. Details on both underwriting and reserve development appear on pages 36-38.
Berkshire 1988年的承保表现依旧相当不错,我们的综合比率(依照法定基础扣除和解与财务再保)大约在104,损失准备提列在前几年不佳后,连续两年情况还算良好)
Our insurance volume over the next few years is likely to run very low, since business with a reasonable potential for profit will almost certainly be scarce. So be it. At Berkshire, we simply will not write policies at rates that carry the expectation of economic loss. We encounter enough troubles when we expect a gain.
我们的保费收入规模预计在未来几年内都会维持在相当低的水平,因为有利可图的生意实在是少之又少,随它去,在Berkshire我们不可能在知道明明会亏钱的情况下,还去硬接生意,光是接看起来有赚头的生意,就让我们的麻烦够多了。
Despite - or perhaps because of - low volume, our profit picture during the next few years is apt to be considerably brighter than the industry. We are sure to have an exceptional amount of float compared to premium volume, and that augurs well for profits. In 1989 and 1990 we expect our float/premiums ratio to be at least three times that of the typical property/casualty company. Mike Goldberg, with special help from Ajit Jain, Dinos Iordanou, and the National Indemnity managerial team, has positioned us well in that respect.
尽管(也或许正因为如此)我们的保单量少,可以预期的我们的获利情况在未来几年内也会比同业来的出色,相较于保单量我们有高比例的浮存金,通常这代表着获利,在1989与1990这两年内,我们的浮存金/保费收入比例至少会是同业水准的三倍以上,Mike Goldberg在Ajit Jain等人的协助下,加上国家产险的经营团队使我们站在相当有利的位置。
At some point - we don know when - we will be deluged with insurance business. The cause will probably be some major physical or financial catastrophe. But we could also experience an explosion in business, as we did in 1985, because large and increasing underwriting losses at other companies coincide with their recognition that they are far underreserved. in the meantime, we will retain our talented professionals, protect our capital, and try not to make major mistakes.
有一点我们不知道什么时候,我们会被保险事业拖垮,有可能会是一些重大的天然或是经济上的意外,但我们也有可能会遇到像1985年一样爆炸性的成长,因为当其它同业因长期杀价抢单,一夕之间损失突然爆发,才发现损失提列准备远远不足,在那种情况下,我们一定会稳固好我们的专业人员与资本并尽量避免犯下重大的错误。
Marketable Securities

有价证券投资
In selecting marketable securities for our insurance companies, we can choose among five major categories: (1) long-term common stock investments, (2) medium-term fixed-income securities, (3) long-term fixed-income securities, (4) short-term cash equivalents, and (5) short-term arbitrage commitments.
在为我们的保险事业选择有价证券投资之时,我们主要有五种选择(1)长期股票投资(2)长期固定收益债券(3)中期固定收益债券(4)短期约当现金(5)短期套利交易
We have no particular bias when it comes to choosing from these categories. We just continuously search among them for the highest after-tax returns as measured by mathematical expectation,?limiting ourselves always to investment alternatives we think we understand. Our criteria have nothing to do with maximizing immediately reportable earnings; our goal, rather, is to maximize eventual net worth.

对于这五种类型的交易,我们没有特别的偏好,我们只是持续不断地寻找最高的税后报酬预计的数学期望值,且仅限于我们认为了解熟悉的投资,我们无意让与短期的帐面盈余好看,我们的目标是让长期的净值极大化。

Below we list our common stock holdings having a value over $100 million, not including arbitrage commitments, which will be discussed later. A small portion of these investments belongs to subsidiaries of which Berkshire owns less than 100%.
下表是我们超过一亿美元以上的普通股投资,(不包含套利交易,这部份我们后面会再谈),一部份的投资系属于Berkshire关系企业所持有

Shares Company Cost Market

------ ------- ---------- ----------

(000s omitted)

3,000,000 Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. .............. $517,500 $1,086,750

14,172,500 The Coca-Cola Company ........... 592,540 632,448

2,400,000 Federal Home Loan Mortgage

Corporation Preferred* ............ 71,729 121,200

6,850,000 GEICO Corporation ..................... 45,713 849,400

1,727,765 The Washington Post Company ... 9,731 364,126

*Although nominally a preferred stock, this security is financially equivalent to a common stock.

Our permanent holdings - Capital Cities/ABC, Inc., GEICO Corporation, and The Washington Post Company - remain unchanged. Also unchanged is our unqualified admiration of their managements: Tom Murphy and Dan Burke at Cap Cities, Bill Snyder and Lou Simpson at GEICO, and Kay Graham and Dick Simmons at The Washington Post. Charlie and I appreciate enormously the talent and integrity these managers bring to their businesses.
我们永久的持股-资本城/ABC、GEICO汽车保险与华盛顿邮报依旧不变,同样不变的是我们对于这些管理阶层无条件的敬仰,不管是资本城/ABC的Tom Murphy 与 Dan Burke、GEICO汽车保险的Bill Snyder 与Lou Simpson,还有华盛顿邮报的Kay Graham与 Dick Simmons,查理跟我对于他们所展现的才能与品格同感敬佩。
Their performance, which we have observed at close range, contrasts vividly with that of many CEOs, which we have fortunately observed from a safe distance. Sometimes these CEOs clearly do not belong in their jobs; their positions, nevertheless, are usually secure. The supreme irony of business management is that it is far easier for an inadequate CEO to keep his job than it is for an inadequate subordinate.
他们的表现,就我们最近距离的观察,与许多公司的CEO截然不同,所幸我们能与后者保持适当的距离,因为有时这些CEO实在是不适任,但却总是能够坐稳其宝座,企业管理最讽刺的就是不适任的老板要比不适任的部属更容易保住其位置。
If a secretary, say, is hired for a job that requires typing ability of at least 80 words a minute and turns out to be capable of only 50 words a minute, she will lose her job in no time. There is a logical standard for this job; performance is easily measured; and if you can make the grade, youe out. Similarly, if new sales people fail to generate sufficient business quickly enough, they will be let go. Excuses will not be accepted as a substitute for orders.
假设一位秘书在应征时被要求一分钟要能够打80个字,但录取之后被发现一分钟只能打50个字,很快地她就可能会被炒鱿鱼,因为有一个相当客观的标准在那里,其表现如何很容易可以衡量的出来;同样的,一个新进的业务,若是不能马上创造足够业绩,可能立刻就要走路,为了维持纪律,很难允许有例外情形发生。
However, a CEO who doesn perform is frequently carried indefinitely. One reason is that performance standards for his job seldom exist. When they do, they are often fuzzy or they may be waived or explained away, even when the performance shortfalls are major and repeated. At too many companies, the boss shoots the arrow of managerial performance and then hastily paints the bullseye around the spot where it lands.
但是一个CEO表现不好,却可以无限期的撑下去,一个原因就是根本没有一套可以衡量其表现的标准存在,就算真的有,也是写的很模糊,或是含混解释过去,即便是错误与过失一再发生也是如此,有太多的公司是等老板射箭出去后,再到墙上把准心描上去。
Another important, but seldom recognized, distinctionbetween the boss and the foot soldier is that the CEO has no immediate superior whose performance is itself getting measured. The sales manager who retains a bunch of lemons in his sales force will soon be in hot water himself. It is in his immediate self-interest to promptly weed out his hiring mistakes. Otherwise, he himself may be weeded out. An office manager who has hired inept secretaries faces the same imperative.
另外一个很重要但却很少被提起老板与员工之间的差别是老板本身没有一个直接可以衡量判断其表现的上司,业务经理不可能让一颗老鼠屎一直留在他那一锅粥之内,他一定会很快地把它给挑出来,否则可能连他自己都会有问题,同样的一个老板要是请到一位无能的秘书,也会有相同的动作。
But the CEOboss is a Board of Directors that seldom measures itself and is infrequently held to account for substandard corporate performance. If the Board makes a mistake in hiring, and perpetuates that mistake, so what? Even if the company is taken over because of the mistake, the deal will probably bestow substantial benefits on the outgoing Board members. (The bigger they are, the softer they fall.)
但CEO的上司也就是董事会却很少检视其绩效,并为企业表现不佳负责,就算董事会选错了人,而且这个错误还持续存在又怎样?即使因为这样使得公司被接收,通常交易也会确保被逐出的董事会成员有丰厚的利益(且通常公司越大,甜头越多)
Finally, relations between the Board and the CEO are expected to be congenial. At board meetings, criticism of the CEO performance is often viewed as the social equivalent of belching. No such inhibitions restrain the office manager from critically evaluating the substandard typist.
最后董事会与CEO之间的关系应该是要能够意气相投,在董事会议当中,对于CEO表现的批评就好象是在社交场合中打嗝一样不自然,但却没有一位经理人会被禁止不准严格地审核打字员的绩效。
These points should not be interpreted as a blanket condemnation of CEOs or Boards of Directors: Most are able and hard-working, and a number are truly outstanding. But the management failings that Charlie and I have seen make us thankful that we are linked with the managers of our three permanent holdings. They love their businesses, they think like owners, and they exude integrity and ability.
以上几点不是要一杆子打翻一条船,大部分的CEO或是董事会都相当努力、能干,有一小部份更是特别的杰出,但查理跟我在看过很多失败的例子之后,更加对于我们能够与前面三家公司优秀的经理人共事感到非常幸运,他们热爱他们的事业,想法跟老板一致,且散发出才气与品格。
In 1988 we made major purchases of Federal Home Loan Mortgage Pfd. (reddie Mac? and Coca Cola. We expect to hold these securities for a long time. In fact, when we own portions of outstanding businesses with outstanding managements, our favorite holding period is forever. We are just the opposite of those who hurry to sell and book profits when companies perform well but who tenaciously hang on to businesses that disappoint. Peter Lynch aptly likens such behavior to cutting the flowers and watering the weeds. Our holdings of Freddie Mac are the maximum allowed by law, and are extensively described by Charlie in his letter. In our consolidated balance sheet these shares are carried at cost rather than market, since they are owned by Mutual Savings and Loan, a non-insurance subsidiary.
1988年我们做出两项重大的决定,大笔买进联邦家庭贷款抵押公司(Freddie Mac)与可口可乐,我们打算要持有这些股票很长的一段期间,事实上当我们发现我们持有兼具杰出企业与杰出经理人的股权时,我们最长的投资期间是永久,我们跟那些急着想要卖出表现不错的股票以实现获利却顽固地不肯出脱那些绩效差的股份的那群人完全相反。彼得林区生动地将这种行为解释成砍除花朵来当作野草的肥料,我们持有Freddie Mac的股份比例是法令规定的上限,这部份查理在后面会详加为各位说明,因为他们是属于共同储贷-我们一家非保险的子公司所投资,所以在我们的合并资产负债表当中,这些持股将以成本而非市价列示。
We continue to concentrate our investments in a very few companies that we try to understand well. There are only a handful of businesses about which we have strong long-term convictions. Therefore, when we find such a business, we want to participate in a meaningful way. We agree with Mae West: too much of a good thing can be wonderful.?
我们持续将投资集中在少数我们能够了解的公司之上,只有少部份是我们想要长期投入的,因为当我们好不容易找到这样的公司时,我们会想要达到一定的参与程度,我们同意Mae West的看法,好东西当然是多多益善。
We reduced our holdings of medium-term tax-exempt bonds by about $100 million last year. All of the bonds sold were acquired after August 7, 1986. When such bonds are held by property-casualty insurance companies, 15% of the ax-exempt? interest earned is subject to tax.
去年我们减少在中期免税债券约一亿美元的投资,所有卖出的债券都是在1986年之后才取得的,当这些债券由产险公司所持有的时候,其中15%的利息收入是要课税的。
The $800 million position we still hold consists almost entirely of bonds randfathered?under the Tax Reform Act of 1986, which means they are entirely tax-exempt. Our sales produced a small profit and our remaining bonds, which have an average maturity of about six years, are worth modestly more than carrying value.
剩下我们仍持有约8亿美元的债券,都是属于适用1986年租税改革法案完全免税的祖父级债券,出售的债券将有些许的获利,而继续持有的债券平均到期日大概是六年,其市价大概略高于帐面价值。
Last year we described our holdings of short-term and intermediate-term bonds of Texaco, which was then in bankruptcy. During 1988, we sold practically all of these bonds at a pre-tax profit of about $22 million. This sale explains close to $100 million of the reduction in fixed-income securities on our balance sheet.
去年我们曾提及我们所持有的已破产的Texaco短期与中期公司债券,1988年我们已经将所有的部位处分,获利约2,200万美元,此举将使得我们在固定收益债券的投资部位减少1亿美元。
We also told you last year about our holdings of another security whose predominant characteristics are those of an intermediate fixed-income issue: our $700 million position in Salomon Inc 9% convertible preferred. This preferred has a sinking fund that will retire it in equal annual installments from 1995 to 1999. Berkshire carries this holding at cost. For reasons discussed by Charlie on page 69, the estimated market value of our holding has improved from moderately under cost at the end of last year to moderately over cost at 1988 year end.
去年我们还提到了另外一个深具固定收益特色的投资:亦即所罗门公司9%可转换特别股,这种特别股特别要求公司提拨偿债基金,自1995年到1999年间分批赎回,Berkshire将这些投资以成本列示在帐上,基于查理所提的原因,现在的估计市价以从前一年度略低于成本,转变为1988年的略高于成本。
The close association we have had with John Gutfreund, CEO of Salomon, during the past year has reinforced our admiration for him. But we continue to have no great insights about the near, intermediate or long-term economics of the investment banking business: This is not an industry in which it is easy to forecast future levels of profitability. We continue to believe that our conversion privilege could well have important value over the life of our preferred. However, the overwhelming portion of the preferred value resides in its fixed-income characteristics, not its equity characteristics.
我们与所罗门CEO- John Gutfreund之间良好的关系,随着几年来的合作日益增进,但我们还是无法判断投资银行业的前景,不管是短期、中期或是长期皆然,这是一个难以预估未来获利程度的产业,我们仍然相信我们所拥有的转换权利会在其有效期间内,对我们产生相当大的贡献,然而这种特别股的价值主要还是来自于其固定收益,而不是股权特性之上。
We have not lost our aversion to long-term bonds. We will become enthused about such securities only when we become enthused about prospects for long-term stability in the purchasing power of money. And that kind of stability isn in the cards: Both society and elected officials simply have too many higher-ranking priorities that conflict with purchasing-power stability. The only long-term bonds we hold are those of Washington Public Power Supply Systems (WPPSS). A few of our WPPSS bonds have short maturities and many others, because of their high coupons, are likely to be refunded and paid off in a few years. Overall, our WPPSS holdings are carried on our balance sheet at $247 million and have a market value of about $352 million.
我们对于长期债券的规避依旧不变,唯有当我们对于货币的长期购买力有信心时,我们才会对这类的债券有兴趣,但这种稳定却根本没办法预期,因为不管是社会或是选出来的官员实在是有太多的优先事项是与购买力的稳定性相冲突的。所以目前我们唯一持有的长期债券就是WPPSS华盛顿功用电力供应系统,其中有些属于短期,有一些则是分几年赎回的高票息,目前资产负债表上帐列成本为2.47亿美元,目前市价约为3.52亿美元。
We explained the reasons for our WPPSS purchases in the 1983 annual report, and are pleased to tell you that this commitment has worked out about as expected. At the time of purchase, most of our bonds were yielding around 17% after taxes and carried no ratings, which had been suspended. Recently, the bonds were rated AA- by Standard & Poor. They now sell at levels only slightly below those enjoyed by top-grade credits.
我们在1983年年报中曾经解释过购买WPPSS的理由,现在很高兴跟大家报告结果完全符合我们当初的预期,在买进的时候,债券的评等被暂时取消,估计税后的投资报酬率约为17%,最近它被史坦普评等机构评为AA-等级,目前的市价大概只有比最高等级债信的投资报酬好一点。
In the 1983 report, we compared the economics of our WPPSS purchase to those involved in buying a business. As it turned out, this purchase actually worked out better than did the general run of business acquisitions made in 1983, assuming both are measured on the basis of unleveraged, after tax returns achieved through 1988.
在1983年的年报中,我们比较了投资WPPSS与一般企业的差异,结果显示这次的投资要比当时同期间所从事购并案还要好,假设两者皆以为无财务杠杆的基础下进行。

Our WPPSS experience, though pleasant, does nothing to alter our negative opinion about long-term bonds. It only makes us hope that we run into some other large stigmatized issue, whose troubles have caused it to be significantly misappraised by the market.
不过我们在WPPSS的愉快经验并未能改变我们对于长期债券的负面看法,除非再让我们碰到暂时僵住的大案子,因为短暂的问题使得其市价严重的被低估。
Arbitrage

套利
In past reports we have told you that our insurance subsidiaries sometimes engage in arbitrage as an alternative to holding short-term cash equivalents. We prefer, of course, to make major long-term commitments, but we often have more cash than good ideas. At such times, arbitrage sometimes promises much greater returns than Treasury Bills and, equally important, cools any temptation we may have to relax our standards for long-term investments. (Charlie sign off after wee talked about an arbitrage commitment is usually: kay, at least it will keep you out of bars.?
在过去的报告中我曾经告诉各位保险子公司有时也会从事套利的操作,以作为短期资金的替代,当然我们比较喜欢长期的投入,但可惜资金总是多过于点子,与此同时,套利的报酬有时会多过于政府公债,同时很重要的一点是可以稍微缓和我们对于寻找长期资金去处的压力,(每次在我们谈完套利投资之后,查理总是会附带一句,这样也好,至少能让你暂时远离市场)
During 1988 we made unusually large profits from arbitrage, measured both by absolute dollars and rate of return. Our pre-tax gain was about $78 million on average invested funds of about $147 million.
在1988年我们在套利部份斩获不少,不论是金额或是投资报酬率,总计投入1.47亿美元的资金,赚取7,800万美元的获利。
This level of activity makes some detailed discussion of arbitrage and our approach to it appropriate. Once, the word applied only to the simultaneous purchase and sale of securities or foreign exchange in two different markets. The goal was to exploit tiny price differentials that might exist between, say, Royal Dutch stock trading in guilders in Amsterdam, pounds in London, and dollars in New York. Some people might call this scalping; it won surprise you that practitioners opted for the French term, arbitrage.
如此的成绩使我们值得详细的描述一下,所谓的套利是指在不同的市场同时买卖相同的有价证券或是外汇,目的是为了撷取两者之间微小的差距,例如阿姆斯特丹的荷兰币、英国的英镑或是纽约的美元,有些人将此行为称之为剃头皮,但通常这一行的人惯用法国的字汇-套利。
Since World War I the definition of arbitrage - or isk arbitrage,?as it is now sometimes called - has expanded to include the pursuit of profits from an announced corporate event such as sale of the company, merger, recapitalization, reorganization, liquidation, self-tender, etc. In most cases the arbitrageur expects to profit regardless of the behavior of the stock market. The major risk he usually faces instead is that the announced event won happen.
自从第一次世界大战之后,套利或者说风险套利的定义,已延伸包括从已公开的企业购并、重整再造、清算等企业活动中获利,大部分的情况下,套利者期望不管股市变动如何皆能获利,相对的他面临的主要风险是宣布的事件未如预期般发生。
Some offbeat opportunities occasionally arise in the arbitrage field. I participated in one of these when I was 24 and working in New York for Graham-Newman Corp. Rockwood & Co., a Brooklyn based chocolate products company of limited profitability, had adopted LIFO inventory valuation in 1941 when cocoa was selling for 50 cents per pound. In 1954 a temporary shortage of cocoa caused the price to soar to over 60 cents. Consequently Rockwood wished to unload its valuable inventory - quickly, before the price dropped. But if the cocoa had simply been sold off, the company would have owed close to a 50% tax on the proceeds.
有些特别的套利机会也会偶尔出现,我记得在24岁时当时我在纽约的葛拉罕-纽曼公司上班,Rockwood一家在布鲁克林生产巧克力的公司,原则该公司自1941年开始就采用后进先出制的存货评价方式,那时可可亚每磅是50美分,到了1954年可可亚因为暂时缺货价格大涨至64美分,因此Rockwood想要把帐上价值不菲的可可亚存货在价格滑落之前变卖掉,但若是直接将这批货卖掉,所得的收益可能要支付50%左右的税金,但1954的税务法令及时公布,其中有一项不太为人知的规定,就是如果企业不是把这些存货卖掉而是直接分配给股东间接减少营运规模的话,就可以免税,因此Rockwood决定停止其贩卖可可亚奶油的业务,并将1,300万磅的可可亚豆子发还给股东,同时公司也愿意以可可亚豆子换买回部份股份,换算下来,每股可以换得80磅的豆子。
The 1954 Tax Code came to the rescue. It contained an arcane provision that eliminated the tax otherwise due on LIFO profits if inventory was distributed to shareholders as part of a plan reducing the scope of a corporation business. Rockwood decided to terminate one of its businesses, the sale of cocoa butter, and said 13 million pounds of its cocoa bean inventory was attributable to that activity. Accordingly, the company offered to repurchase its stock in exchange for the cocoa beans it no longer needed, paying 80 pounds of beans for each share. For several weeks I busily bought shares, sold beans, and made periodic stops at Schroeder Trust to exchange stock certificates for warehouse receipts. The profits were good and my only expense was subway tokens.
有好几个礼拜我整天忙着买进股票、换豆子,再把豆子拿去卖,并常常跑到Schroeder信托公司拿着股票凭证换取仓库保管单,获利算下来还不错,而唯一的成本费用就是地铁车票。
The architect of Rockwood restructuring was an unknown, but brilliant Chicagoan, Jay Pritzker, then 32. If youe familiar with Jay subsequent record, you won be surprised to hear the action worked out rather well for Rockwood continuing shareholders also. From shortly before the tender until shortly after it, Rockwood stock appreciated from 15 to 100, even though the company was experiencing large operating losses. Sometimes there is more to stock valuation than price-earnings ratios.
Rockwood改造计画的规划者是32岁没有名气但相当优秀的芝加哥人Jay Pritzker,若你知道Jay后来的记录,你应该就不会讶异这个动作对于公司股东有多大的益处了,在这项提议推出不久之后,虽然公司营运呈现亏损,但Rockwood的股价却从15美元涨到100美元,有时股票的价格会远远超过合理的本益比之外。
In recent years, most arbitrage operations have involved takeovers, friendly and unfriendly. With acquisition fever rampant, with anti-trust challenges almost non-existent, and with bids often ratcheting upward, arbitrageurs have prospered mightily. They have not needed special talents to do well; the trick, a la Peter Sellers in the movie, has simply been eing There.?In Wall Street the old proverb has been reworded: give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach him how to arbitrage and you feed him forever.?(If, however, he studied at the Ivan Boesky School of Arbitrage, it may be a state institution that supplies his meals.)
近几年来,大部分的套利操作都牵涉到购并案,不管是友善的或是敌意的皆然,在购并案狂热之时,几乎感觉不到托拉斯法的存在,投标的竞价履创天价,在当时套利客大行其道,在这行不需要太多的才能,唯一的技巧就像是Peter Sellers的电影那样,只要轧一脚就行,华尔街有一句经过改编的俗话,给一个人一条鱼,你只能养活他一餐,教他如何套利,却可以养活他一辈子,(当然要是他到学校学习套利,可能就要靠州政府过活了)
To evaluate arbitrage situations you must answer four questions: (1) How likely is it that the promised event will indeed occur? (2) How long will your money be tied up? (3) What chance is there that something still better will transpire - a competing takeover bid, for example? and (4) What will happen if the event does not take place because of anti-trust action, financing glitches, etc.?
在评估套利活动时,你必须要能回答四个问题(1)已公布的事件有多少可能性确实会发生?(2)你的资金总计要投入多久?(3)有多少可能更好的结果会发生,例如购并竞价提高(4)因为反托拉斯或是财务意外状况发生导致购并案触礁的机率有多高?
Arcata Corp., one of our more serendipitous arbitrage experiences, illustrates the twists and turns of the business. On September 28, 1981 the directors of Arcata agreed in principle to sell the company to Kohlberg, Kravis, Roberts & Co. (KKR), then and now a major leveraged-buy out firm. Arcata was in the printing and forest products businesses and had one other thing going for it: In 1978 the U.S. Government had taken title to 10,700 acres of Arcata timber, primarily old-growth redwood, to expand Redwood National Park. The government had paid $97.9 million, in several installments, for this acreage, a sum Arcata was contesting as grossly inadequate. The parties also disputed the interest rate that should apply to the period between the taking of the property and final payment for it. The enabling legislation stipulated 6% simple interest; Arcata argued for a much higher and compounded rate.
Arcata公司我们最曲折离奇的购并经验,说明了企业的曲曲折折,1981年9月28日该公司的董事同意将公司卖给KKR公司,一家在当时同时也是现在最大的融资买断公司,Arcata所从事的是印刷与森林产品,但其中值得注意的是在1978年美国政府决定征收该公司所有10,700公顷的红木林,以扩增国家公园的范围,为此政府决定分期支付该公司总金额9,790万美元的征收款,但Arcata公司却认为金额太少,同时双方也对适用的利率也争议,Arcata极力争取更高的赔偿金与适用的利率。
Buying a company with a highly-speculative, large-sized claim in litigation creates a negotiating problem, whether the claim is on behalf of or against the company. To solve this problem, KKR offered $37.00 per Arcata share plus two-thirds of any additional amounts paid by the government for the redwood lands.
买下一家具有高度争议的公司将会让公司在谈判过程中,会增加许多的难度,不管诉讼案件是不利或是有利于公司皆然,为了化解这个难题,KKR决定支付Arcata每股37美元再加上政府额外赔偿款的三分之二,作为购并的条件。
Appraising this arbitrage opportunity, we had to ask ourselves whether KKR would consummate the transaction since, among other things, its offer was contingent upon its obtainingatisfactory financing.?A clause of this kind is always dangerous for the seller: It offers an easy exit for a suitor whose ardor fades between proposal and marriage. However, we were not particularly worried about this possibility because KKR past record for closing had been good.
在评估过这项投资机会之后,我们自问KKR能否真正完成这项交易的关键在于他们是否能够顺利取得融资,这对卖方来说永远是风险最高的一项条款,追求者在提出求婚到正式结婚的这段期间,要落跑是很容易的一件事,不过在这个案子我们却不太担心,原因在于KKR过去的记录还算不错。
We also had to ask ourselves what would happen if the KKR deal did fall through, and here we also felt reasonably comfortable: Arcata management and directors had been shopping the company for some time and were clearly determined to sell. If KKR went away, Arcata would likely find another buyer, though of course, the price might be lower.
我们还必须扪心自问若是KKR真的失败会如何,在这点我们觉得还好,Arcata的董事会与经营阶层已经在外兜售好一段时间了,显示该公司却有决心要出售,如果KKR跑掉,Arcata一定还会再找新的买主,当然届时的价格可能会差一点。
Finally, we had to ask ourselves what the redwood claim might be worth. Your Chairman, who can tell an elm from an oak, had no trouble with that one: He coolly evaluated the claim at somewhere between zero and a whole lot.
最后我们还必须问自己,那块红木林的价值到底有多少?坦白说我虽然个人连榆树跟橡木都分不出来,但对于这个问题我的处理方式倒很简单,反正就是介于零到一大笔钱之间就对了。
We started buying Arcata stock, then around $33.50, on September 30 and in eight weeks purchased about 400,000 shares, or 5% of the company. The initial announcement said that the $37.00 would be paid in January, 1982. Therefore, if everything had gone perfectly, we would have achieved an annual rate of return of about 40% - not counting the redwood claim, which would have been frosting.
后来我们开始从九月开始以每股33.5元买进Arcata股票,八个礼拜之内总共买进40万股,约占该公司5%的股权,隔年一月第一次对外公布股东每股可以拿到37元,换算年投资报酬约为40%,这还不包含可以的红木林赔偿损失。
All did not go perfectly. In December it was announced that the closing would be delayed a bit. Nevertheless, a definitive agreement was signed on January 4. Encouraged, we raised our stake, buying at around $38.00 per share and increasing our holdings to 655,000 shares, or over 7% of the company. Our willingness to pay up - even though the closing had been postponed - reflected our leaning toward  whole lot?rather than ero?for the redwoods.
然而过程中不太顺利,到了12月宣布交易可能会延后,尽管如果1月铁定会签约,受到这项鼓励,我们决定再加码以38元每股至65.5万股,约7%的股权,我们的努力终于获得回报,虽然有点拖延,但结果却相当令人满意。
Then, on February 25 the lenders said they were taking aecond look?at financing terms ?in view of the severely depressed housing industry and its impact on Arcata outlook.? The stockholders?meeting was postponed again, to April. An Arcata spokesman said he id not think the fate of the acquisition itself was imperiled.?When arbitrageurs hear such reassurances, their minds flash to the old saying: he lied like a finance minister on the eve of devaluation.?
接着在2月25日融资银行说有鉴于房地产景气不佳,连带对Arcata的前景可能有所疑虑,故有关融资条件可能还要再谈,股东临时会也因此再度延期到四月举行,同时Arcata公司发言人表示他不认为购并案已触礁,但是当套利客听到这种重申时,脑中便闪过一句老话︰他说谎的方式就好象是即将面临汇率崩盘的财政部长一样。
On March 12 KKR said its earlier deal wouldn work, first cutting its offer to $33.50, then two days later raising it to $35.00. On March 15, however, the directors turned this bid down and accepted another group offer of $37.50 plus one-half of any redwood recovery. The shareholders okayed the deal, and the $37.50 was paid on June 4.
3月12日KKR宣布先前的约定无效,并将报价砍至33.5美元一股,两天后再调高至35美元,然而到了3月15日董事会拒绝了这项提议,并接受另一家集团37.5美元外加红木林一半的收益,股东会迅速通过这项交易,并于6月4日收到现金。
We received $24.6 million versus our cost of $22.9 million; our average holding period was close to six months. Considering the trouble this transaction encountered, our 15% annual rate of return excluding any value for the redwood claim - was more than satisfactory.
总计我们花了近六个月的时间,投资2,290万美元,最后收回2,460万美元,但若是加计这项交易中间所经历的风风雨雨,则15%的年报酬率(未包含红木林潜在收益)还算令人满意。
But the best was yet to come. The trial judge appointed two commissions, one to look at the timbervalue, the other to consider the interest rate questions. In January 1987, the first commission said the redwoods were worth $275.7 million and the second commission recommended a compounded, blended rate of return working out to about 14%.

不过好戏还在后头,承审法院指派两个委员会来解决这项纷争,一个负责认定红木林的价值,一个则负责应该适用的利率,隔年1月委员会认定红木林的价值为2.75亿美元,适用的复利率应为14%。
In August 1987 the judge upheld these conclusions, which meant a net amount of about $600 million would be due Arcata. The government then appealed. In 1988, though, before this appeal was heard, the claim was settled for $519 million. Consequently, we received an additional $29.48 per share, or about $19.3 million. We will get another $800,000 or so in 1989.
到了八月法官裁定这项决议,这代表政府需要再支付高达6亿美元的赔偿金,联邦政府立刻提出上诉,而就在上诉即将宣判结果时,双方以5.19亿美元达成和解,因此我们又额外收到1,930万美元,相当于每股29.48美元的大红包,之后还可以再拿到80万美元的进帐。
Berkshire arbitrage activities differ from those of many arbitrageurs. First, we participate in only a few, and usually very large, transactions each year. Most practitioners buy into a great many deals perhaps 50 or more per year. With that many irons in the fire, they must spend most of their time monitoring both the progress of deals and the market movements of the related stocks. This is not how Charlie nor I wish to spend our lives. (What the sense in getting rich just to stare at a ticker tape all day?)
Berkshire的套利活动与其它套利客有些不同,首先相较于一般套利客一年从事好几十个案子,每年我们只参与少数通常是大型的交易案,有这么多锅子同时在煮,他们必须花很多时间在监控交易的进度与相关股票的股价变动,这并不是查理跟我想要过的生活方式,(为了致富,整天盯着计算机屏幕到底有何意义?)
Because we diversify so little, one particularly profitable or unprofitable transaction will affect our yearly result from arbitrage far more than it will the typical arbitrage operation. So far, Berkshire has not had a really bad experience. But we will - and when it happens we will report the gory details to you.
也因为我们只专注在少数几个案子,所以一个特别好或是特别差的案子,可能会大大地影响到我们一整年的套利成绩,所幸到目前为止,Berkshire还没有遇到什么惨痛的经验,一旦发生我一定会一五一十的向各位报告。
The other way we differ from some arbitrage operations is that we participate only in transactions that have been publicly announced. We do not trade on rumors or try to guess takeover candidates. We just read the newspapers, think about a few of the big propositions, and go by our own sense of probabilities.
另有一点不同的是我们只参与已经公开对外宣布的案子,我们不会仅靠着谣言或是去预测可能被购并的对象,我们只看报纸,思考几项关键因素,并依照我们判断的可能性做决定。
At yearend, our only major arbitrage position was 3,342,000 shares of RJR Nabisco with a cost of $281.8 million and a market value of $304.5 million. In January we increased our holdings to roughly four million shares and in February we eliminated our position. About three million shares were accepted when we tendered our holdings to KKR, which acquired RJR, and the returned shares were promptly sold in the market. Our pre-tax profit was a better-than-expected $64 million.
到了年底,我们剩下唯一的套利投资是334.2万股的RJR Nabisco,投资成本2.82亿美元,目前市价3.04亿美元,今年一月我们增加持股到400万股,接着在二月全部出清。有300万股是KKR决定购并RJR后,我们卖给KKR的,获利6,400万美元略高于预期。
Earlier, another familiar face turned up in the RJR bidding contest: Jay Pritzker, who was part of a First Boston group that made a tax-oriented offer. To quote Yogi Berra; it was deja vu all over again.?
稍早之前,另外一个竞争对手Jay Pritzker-第一波士顿集团浮现加入对RJR的竞争行列,提出以租税规划为导向的提案,套句Yogi Berra的说法:这感觉识曾相识!
During most of the time when we normally would have been purchasers of RJR, our activities in the stock were restricted because of Salomon participation in a bidding group. Customarily, Charlie and I, though we are directors of Salomon, are walled off from information about its merger and acquisition work. We have asked that it be that way: The information would do us no good and could, in fact, occasionally inhibit Berkshirearbitrage operations.
大部分的时间我们买进RJR相当大的限制,由于我们在也是竞争者的所罗兄公司有投资,虽然查理跟我都是所罗门的董事,但我们却与整个购并案的所有信息隔绝,而我们认为这样也好,额外的信息对我们不见得就有好处,事实上,有时还会妨碍到Berkshire进行套利的投资。
However, the unusually large commitment that Salomon proposed to make in the RJR deal required that all directors be fully informed and involved. Therefore, Berkshire purchases of RJR were made at only two times: first, in the few days immediately following management announcement of buyout plans, before Salomon became involved; and considerably later, after the RJR board made its decision in favor of KKR. Because we could not buy at other times, our directorships cost Berkshire significant money.
然而由于所罗门的提案规模相当的大,以致于所有的董事都必须完全被知会并参与,因此Berkshire总共只有两个时点可以进行买进RJR的动作,第一次是当RJR经营阶层宣布整个购并计画的几天内,当时所罗门还未宣布加入竞标,另外是后来RJR董事会决定优先考虑KKR的提案,也因为所罗门的董事职务,使得Berkshire的投资成本大大提高。
Considering Berkshire good results in 1988, you might expect us to pile into arbitrage during 1989. Instead, we expect to be on the sidelines.
看到1988年如此丰硕的套利成果,你可能会觉得我们应该继续朝这方面加强,但事实上,我们决定采取观望的态度。
One pleasant reason is that our cash holdings are down - because our position in equities that we expect to hold for a very long time is substantially up. As regular readers of this report know, our new commitments are not based on a judgment about short-term prospects for the stock market. Rather, they reflect an opinion about long-term business prospects for specific companies. We do not have, never have had, and never will have an opinion about where the stock market, interest rates, or business activity will be a year from now.
一个好的理由是因为我们决定大幅提高在长期股权方面的投资,所以目前的现金水位已经下降,常常读我们年报的人可能都知道,我们的决定不是基于短期股市的表现,反而我们注重的是个别企业的长期经济展望,我们从来没有、以后也不会对短期股市、利率或企业活动做任何的评论。
Even if we had a lot of cash we probably would do little in arbitrage in 1989. Some extraordinary excesses have developed in the takeover field. As Dorothy says: oto, I have a feeling wee not in Kansas any more.?
然而就算是我们现金满满,我们在1989年可能也不会从事太多的套利交易,购并市场的发展已经有点过头了,就像桃乐斯所说的:「奥图,我觉得我们好象已经不是在堪萨斯市了!」
We have no idea how long the excesses will last, nor do we know what will change the attitudes of government, lender and buyer that fuel them. But we do know that the less the prudence with which others conduct their affairs, the greater the prudence with which we should conduct our own affairs. We have no desireto arbitrage transactions that reflect the unbridled - and, in our view, often unwarranted - optimism of both buyers and lenders. In our activities, we will heed the wisdom of Herb Stein: if something can go on forever, it will end.?
我们不太确定这种过热的现象会持续多久,包含参与热潮的政府、金主与买家的态度会如何转变,不过我们可以确定的是,当别人越没有信心参与这些活动时,我们的信心也就越高,我们不愿意参与那些反应买方与金主无可救药的乐观,通常我们认为那是无保障的,在此我们宁愿注重Herb Stein的智能,若一件事不能持久不衰,那么它终将结束。
Efficient Market Theory

效率市场理论
The preceding discussion about arbitrage makes a small discussion of fficient market theory?(EMT) also seem relevant. This doctrine became highly fashionable - indeed, almost holy scripture in academic circles during the 1970s. Essentially, it said that analyzing stocks was useless because all public information about them was appropriately reflected in their prices. In other words, the market always knew everything. As a corollary, the professors who taught EMT said that someone throwing darts at the stock tables could select a stock portfolio having prospects just as good as one selected by the brightest, most hard-working security analyst. Amazingly, EMT was embraced not only by academics, but by many investment professionals and corporate managers as well. Observing correctly that the market was frequently efficient, they went on to conclude incorrectly that it was always efficient. The difference between these propositions is night and day.
前面提到的套利活动使得我们有必要讨论一下市场效率理论,这理论在近年来变得非常热门,尤其在1970年代的学术圈被奉为圣旨,基本上它认为分析股票是没有用的,因为所有公开的信息皆已反应在其股价之上,换句话说,市场永远知道所有的事,学校教市场效率理论的教授因此做了一个推论,比喻说任何一个人射飞镖随机所选出来的股票组合可以媲美,华尔街最聪明、最努力的证券分析师所选出来的投资组合,令人惊讶的是市场效率理论不但为学术界所拥抱,更被许多投资专家与企业经理人所接受,正确地观察到市场往往是具有效率的,他们却继续下了错误的结论,市场永远都具有效率,这中间的假设差异,简直有天壤之别。
In my opinion, the continuous 63-year arbitrage experience of Graham-Newman Corp. Buffett Partnership, and Berkshire illustrates just how foolish EMT is. (There plenty of other evidence, also.) While at Graham-Newman, I made a study of its earnings from arbitrage during the entire 1926-1956 lifespan of the company. Unleveraged returns averaged 20% per year. Starting in 1956, I applied Ben Graham arbitrage principles, first at Buffett Partnership and then Berkshire. Though Ie not made an exact calculation, I have done enough work to know that the 1956-1988 returns averaged well over 20%. (Of course, I operated in an environment far more favorable than Ben; he had 1929-1932 to contend with.)
就我个人的看法,就我个人过去在葛拉罕-纽曼公司、巴菲特合伙企业与Berkshire公司连续63年的套利经验,说明了效率市场理论有多么的愚蠢(当然还有其它一堆证据),当初在葛拉罕-纽曼公司上班时,我将该公司1926年到1956年的套利成果做了一番研究,每年平均20%的投资报酬率,之后从1956年开始我在巴菲特合伙企业与之后的Berkshire公司,运用葛拉罕的套利原则,虽然我并没有仔细地去算,但1956年到1988年间的投资报酬率应该也有超过20%,(当然之后的投资环境比起葛拉罕当时要好的许多,因为当时他遇到过1929-1932年的景气大萧条)。
All of the conditions are present that are required for a fair test of portfolio performance: (1) the three organizations traded hundreds of different securities while building this 63-year record; (2) the results are not skewed by a few fortunate experiences; (3) we did not have to dig for obscure facts or develop keen insights about products or managements - we simply acted on highly-publicized events; and (4) our arbitrage positions were a clearly identified universe - they have not been selected by hindsight.
所有的条件皆以具备来公平测试投资组合的表现(1)三个公司63年来买卖了上百种不同的股票证券(2)结果应该不会因为某个特别好的个案所扭曲(3)我们不需要故意隐瞒事实或是宣扬我们的产品优秀或是经营者眼光独到,我们只是从事高度公开的个案(4)我们的套利部份可以很容易就被追查到,他们并不是事后才特别挑选出来的
Over the 63 years, the general market delivered just under a 10% annual return, including dividends. That means $1,000 would have grown to $405,000 if all income had been reinvested. A 20% rate of return, however, would have produced $97 million. That strikes us as a statistically-significant differential that might, conceivably, arouse one curiosity.
过去63年来,大盘整体的投资报酬(加计股利)大概只有10%,意思是说若当初投入1,000美元的话,现在可以获得405,000美元,但是若投资报酬率改为20%的话,现在却会变成9,700万美元,统计上如此大的差异使得我们不禁好奇的想要怀疑,然而理论支持者从来就不会去注意理论与现实如此地不相符,确实现在他们讲话已不如过去那么大声,但据我所知却没有任何一个人愿意承认错误,不管他们已经误导了多少个学生,市场效率理论还是继续在各个企管名校间列为投资课程的重要教材之一,很显然的,死不悔改、甚而曲解神意,不是只有神学家才做的出来。
Yet proponents of the theory have never seemed interested in discordant evidence of this type. True, they don talk quite as much about their theory today as they used to. But no one, to my knowledge, has ever said he was wrong, no matter how many thousands of students he has sent forth misinstructed. EMT, moreover, continues to be an integral part of the investment curriculum at major business schools. Apparently, a reluctance to recant, and thereby to demystify the priesthood, is not limited to theologians. Naturally the disservice done students and gullible investment professionals who have swallowed EMT has been an extraordinary service to us and other followers of Graham. In any sort of a contest - financial, mental, or physical - it an enormous advantage to have opponents who have been taught that it useless to even try. From a selfish point of view, Grahamites should probably endow chairs to ensure the perpetual teaching of EMT.
自然而然,这些遇人不淑的学生与被骗的投资专家在接受市场效率理论后,对于我们与其它葛拉罕的追随者实在有莫大的帮助,在任何的竞赛中,不管是投资、心智或是体能方面,要是遇到对手被告知思考与尝试是没有用的,对我们来说等于是占尽了优势,从一个自私的观点来看,葛拉罕学派应该祈祷市场效率理论能够在校园中永为流传。
All this said, a warning is appropriate. Arbitrage has looked easy recently. But this is not a form of investing that guarantees profits of 20% a year or, for that matter, profits of any kind. As noted, the market is reasonably efficient much of the time: For every arbitrage opportunity we seized in that 63-year period, many more were foregone because they seemed properly-priced.
说了那么多,最后还是要提出一个警告,最近套利看起来相当容易,但它却不是永远都保证有20%报酬的投资活动,现在的市场比起过去来的有效率许多,除了我们过去63年所真正掌握的套利活动之外,还有更多是因为价格合理而因此被舍弃掉的。
An investor cannot obtain superior profits from stocks by simply committing to a specific investment category or style. He can earn them only by carefully evaluating facts and continuously exercising discipline. Investing in arbitrage situations, per se, is no better a strategy than selecting a portfolio by throwing darts.
一个投资者很难只靠单一一种投资类别或投资风格而创造超人的利益,他只能靠着仔细评估事实并持续地遵照原则才能赚取超额利润,就套利投资本身而言,并没有比选择利用飞镖选股的策略好到哪里去。
New York Stock Exchange Listing

纽约证券交易所挂牌
Berkshire shares were listed on the New York Stock Exchange on November 29, 1988. On pages 50-51 we reproduce the letter we sent to shareholders concerning the listing.
Berkshire的股份于1988年11月29日正式在纽约证券交易所挂牌,后面附有我们写给股东有关挂牌的正式声明。
Let me clarify one point not dealt with in the letter: Though our round lot for trading on the NYSE is ten shares, any number of shares from one on up can be bought or sold.
除了那封信之外,我个人还有一点要说明,虽然我们在交易所的基本交易单位是10股,但只要是1股以上还是一样可以进行买卖。
As the letter explains, our primary goal in listing was to reduce transaction costs, and we believe this goal is being achieved. Generally, the spread between the bid and asked price on the NYSE has been well below the spread that prevailed in the over-the-counter market.
另外如同信中所提到的,我们之所以决定挂牌的主要目的是要降低交易成本,而我相信这目的也已经达到,一般来说,在NYSE买卖之间的价差会比在柜台买卖要来得小的多。
Henderson Brothers, Inc., the specialist in our shares, is the oldest continuing specialist firm on the Exchange; its progenitor, William Thomas Henderson, bought his seat for $500 on September 8, 1861. (Recently, seats were selling for about $625,000.) Among the 54 firms acting as specialists, HBI ranks second in number of stocks assigned, with 83. We were pleased when Berkshire was allocated to HBI, and have been delighted with the firm performance. Jim Maguire, Chairman of HBI, personally manages the trading in Berkshire, and we could not be in better hands.
负责买卖Berkshire股份的是Henderson兄弟公司-交易所中一家老牌专家,它的前身William Thomas Henderson,是在1861年以500块美金买下一个交易所的席位(最近一个席位的成交价大约是62.5万美金),在所有54家交易公司当中,HBI共被分配到第二多的83种股票,我们很高兴Berkshire能够被分配给HBI负责交易,到目前为止对于他们的服务感到相当满意,该公司负责人Jim Maguire亲自负责Berkshire的交易,他是我们可以找到的最佳人选。
In two respects our goals probably differ somewhat from those of most listed companies. First, we do not want to maximize the price at which Berkshire shares trade. We wish instead for them to trade in a narrow range centered at intrinsic business value (which we hope increases at a reasonable - or, better yet, unreasonable - rate). Charlie and I are bothered as much by significant overvaluation as significant undervaluation. Both extremes will inevitably produce results for many shareholders that will differ sharply from Berkshire business results. If our stock price instead consistently mirrors business value, each of our shareholders will receive an investment result that roughly parallels the business results of Berkshire during his holding period.
有两点是我们与其它挂牌公司最大不同的地方,第一我们不希望Berkshire的股价过高,主要是希望它能够反应的实质价值范围内交易(当然我们希望实质价值能够以合理的速度增加,当然能够不合理的增加更好),查理跟我都不希望,股价被过分高估或是被过分低估,两者都会使Berkshire的股东的获利与公司本身经营获利状况不相当,所以如果Berkshire的股价持续地反应企业实质的价值,则我们可以确定每个股东在他持有公司股份的期间所获得的利益,都能与公司本身营运的获利成等比。
Second, we wish for very little trading activity. If we ran a private business with a few passive partners, we would be disappointed if those partners, and their replacements, frequently wanted to leave the partnership. Running a public company, we feel the same way.
第二我们希望交易量越少越好,如果我们经营的是一家只有几位合伙人的私人企业,我们也不希望合伙人时常进进出出合伙事业,经营一家公开上市公司也是同样的道理。
Our goal is to attract long-term owners who, at the time of purchase, have no timetable or price target for sale but plan instead to stay with us indefinitely. We don understand the CEO who wants lots of stock activity, for that can be achievedonly if many of his owners are constantly exiting. At what other organization - school, club, church, etc. - do leaders cheer when members leave? (However, if there were a broker whose livelihood depended upon the membership turnover in such organizations, you could be sure that there would be at least one proponent of activity, as in: here has not been much going on in Christianity for a while; maybe we should switch to Buddhism next week.?
我们希望能够吸引具有远见的投资人,在买进股份时,抱着打算与我们永远同在而不是订有卖出价格的时间表,我们实在不能理解为何有公司的CEO希望自己公司的股份交易量越多越好,这代表公司的股东组合会变来变去,在其它如学校、俱乐部、教堂等社会机构当中,没有主持人希望自己的组织成员离开的,(然而偏偏就有营业员就是要靠着说服成员离开组织来维生,你有没有听过有人劝你反正最近基督教也没有什么搞头,不如下礼拜大家改信佛教试一试)。
Of course, some Berkshire owners will need or want to sell from time to time, and we wish for good replacements who will pay them a fair price. Therefore we try, through our policies, performance, and communications, to attract new shareholders who understand our operations, share our time horizons, and measure us as we measure ourselves. If we can continue to attract this sort of shareholder - and, just as important, can continue to be uninteresting to those with short-term or unrealistic expectations - Berkshire shares should consistently sell at prices reasonably related to business value.
当然还是有些Berkshire股东需要或是想要偶尔把他持有的股份卖掉,而我们希望能够找到合适的人以适当的价格来接手,因此我们试着透过我们的政策、表现与沟通,吸引真正了解我们营运、认同我们理念并用同样的方式来对待我们的新股东,如果我们能够持续地吸引这种类型的股东,同时很重要的,让那些短视近利的投资人远离我们,相信Berkshire一定能够持续地以合理的价格交易买卖。
David L. Dodd

大卫.陶德
Dave Dodd, my friend and teacher for 38 years, died last year at age 93. Most of you don know of him. Yet any long-time shareholder of Berkshire is appreciably wealthier because of the indirect influence he had upon our company.
与我相交38年亦师亦友的大卫.陶德,于去年以高龄93岁过世,大多数的人可能都不知道他是谁,但是许多Berkshire的老股东却因为他对本公司的间接影响而受益良多。
Dave spent a lifetime teaching at Columbia University, and he co-authored Security Analysis with Ben Graham. From the moment I arrived at Columbia, Dave personally encouraged and educated me; one influence was as important as the other. Everything he taught me, directly or through his book, made sense. Later, through dozens of letters, he continued my education right up until his death.
大卫终其一生在哥伦比亚大学教书,同时他也与葛拉罕合作著述「证券分析」一书,自从我到哥伦比亚之后,大卫不时地鼓励与教导我,给我的影响一个接着一个,他所教导我的很一件事,不论是直接或透过他的著作都非常有道理,后来毕业后,透过不断往来的信件,他给我的教育持续到他逝世之前。
I have known many professors of finance and investments but I have never seen any, except for Ben Graham, who was the match of Dave. The proof of his talent is the record of his students: No other teacher of investments has sent forth so many who have achieved unusual success.
我认识许多财经与投资学的教授,除了葛拉罕以外,没有人可以比得上大卫,最好的证明就是他学生的成绩,没有其它投资学的教授可以造就出那么多杰出的英才。
When students left Dave classroom, they were equipped to invest intelligently for a lifetime because the principles he taught were simple, sound, useful, and enduring. Though these may appear to be unremarkable virtues, the teaching of principles embodying them has been rare.
当学生离开大卫的教室,就代表着他们一生将具备有投资智能,因为他所教导的
原则是如此的简单、完整有用且持久,虽然这些特点看起来并不显著,但要将这
些原则教导给学生却不是一件容易的事。
It particularly impressive that Dave could practice as well as preach. just as Keynes became wealthy by applying his academic ideas to a very small purse, so, too, did Dave. Indeed, his financial performance far outshone that of Keynes, who began as a market-timer (leaning on business and credit-cycle theory) and converted, after much thought, to value investing. Dave was right from the start.
让我印象最深刻的是大卫总是言行一致,就像凯恩斯运用自己研究出的学术观点来致富,大卫也是如此。事实上他在财务操作上的表现远比凯恩斯来得出色,凭借着企业与信用循环理论,之后再演变成价值投资,大卫一开始就选择了正确的方向。
In Berkshire investments, Charlie and I have employed the principles taught by Dave and Ben Graham. Our prosperity is the fruit of their intellectual tree.
查理跟我运用大卫与葛拉罕所教的原则,在Berkshire的投资之上,我们的成功正代表着他们心血的结晶。
Miscellaneous

其它事项
We hope to buy more businesses that are similar to the ones we have, and we can use some help. If you have a business that fits the following criteria, call me or, preferably, write.
我们希望能够买进更多像我们现在拥有一样的企业,当然我们可以透过大家的协助,如果你拥有符合以下条件的企业,记得打电话或者是写信告诉我,
Here what wee looking for:

(1) large purchases (at least $10 million of after-tax earnings),

(2) demonstrated consistent earning power (future projections are of little interest to us, nor are urnaround? situations),

(3) businesses earning good returns on equity while employing little or no debt,

(4) management in place (we can supply it),

(5) simple businesses (if there lots of technology, we won understand it),

(6) an offering price (we don want to waste our time or that of the seller by talking, even preliminarily, about a transaction when price is unknown).
我们想要找

(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有一千万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并且甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)
我们不会进行敌意的购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。我们最喜欢的交易对象之一是像B太太- Heldman家族那样,公司经营者希望能马上有一大笔现金,不管是给自己、家人或是其它股东,最好这些经营者如往常一样能够继续留在公司,我想我们可以提供具有以上想法的经营者,一个满意的方式,我们也欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听。
We will not engage in unfriendly takeovers. We can promise complete confidentiality and a very fast answer - customarily within five minutes - as to whether wee interested. We prefer to buy for cash, but will consider issuing stock when we receive as much in intrinsic business value as we give. Our favorite form of purchase is one fitting the Blumkin-Friedman-Heldman mold. In cases like these, the company owner-managers wish to generate significant amounts of cash, sometimes for themselves, but often for their families or inactive shareholders. However, these managers also wish to remain significant owners who continue to run their companies just as they have in the past. We think we offer a particularly good fit for owners with these objectives and invite potential sellers to check us out by contacting people with whom we have done business in the past. Charlie and I frequently get approached about acquisitions that don come close to meeting our tests: Wee found that if you advertise an interest in buying collies, a lot of people will call hoping to sell you their cocker spaniels. Our interest in new ventures, turnarounds, or auction-like sales can best be expressed by another Goldwynism: lease include me out.?
另一方面我们也持续接到一些不符合我们条件的询问,包括新事业、转机股、拍卖案以及最常见的中介案。我们发现如果你登广告要买牧羊犬,结果却有一大堆人打电话来要卖你长耳猎犬,在此重申我们对这些交易,只有高德温的另一句话可以形容,请把我排除在外。
Besides being interested in the purchase of businesses as described above, we are also interested in the negotiated purchase of large, but not controlling, blocks of stock comparable to those we hold in Cap Cities and Salomon. We have a special interest in purchasing convertible preferreds as a long-term investment, as we did at Salomon.
除了以上买下整家公司的购并案外,我们也会考虑买进一大部份不具控制权的股份,就像我们在资本城与所罗门这两个Case一样,尤其是我们对于像这次购买所罗门一样的可转换特别股当作长期投资特别有兴趣。

We received some good news a few weeks ago: Standard & Poor raised our credit rating to AAA, which is the highest rating it bestows. Only 15 other U.S. industrial or property-casualty companies are rated AAA, down from 28 in 1980.
几个礼拜以前,我们接到了一个好消息,史坦普评等机构将我们的债信等级调高的三A的最高标准,相较于1980年的28家,目前全美只有15家公司可以拥有此殊荣。
Corporate bondholders have taken their lumps in the past few years from vent risk.?This term refers to the overnight degradation of credit that accompanies a heavily-leveraged purchase or recapitalization of a business whose financial policies, up to then, had been conservative. In a world of takeovers inhabited by few owner-managers, most corporations present such a risk. Berkshire does not. Charlie and I promise bondholders the same respect we afford shareholders.
过去几年企业公司债的持有人在事件风险上跌了一大跤,意思是说一家原本财务操作保守的公司,因为进行高杠杆购并或是重整再造,使得公司在一夜之间被大幅调降信用评等,购并的世界之中,除了少数经营权与所有权一致的公司之外,大部分的公司都会面临这样的风险,但Berkshire绝对不会,查理跟我保证给债券持有人与股东一样的承诺。

About 97.4% of all eligible shares participated in Berkshire 1988 shareholder-designated contributions program. Contributions made through the program were $5 million, and 2,319 charities were recipients. If we achieve reasonable business results, we plan to increase the per-share contributions in 1989.
大约有97.4%的有效股权参与1988年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约500万美元捐出的款项分配给2,319家慈善机构,若经营情况许可,我们计画在1989年扩大这项捐赠计画。

We urge new shareholders to read the description of our shareholder-designated contributions program that appears on pages 48-49. If you wish to participate in future programs, we strongly urge that you immediately make sure your shares are registered in the name of the actual owner, not in the nominee name of a broker, bank or depository. Shares not so registered on September 30, 1989 will be ineligible for the 1989 program.
我们敦促新加入的股东,仔细阅读年报上有关股东捐赠计画的详细内容,如果在未来年度内,你想要参加这类的计画,我们强烈建议你将股份登记在自己而不是受托人的名下,必须在1989年9月30日之前完成登记,才有权利参与1989年的计画。

Berkshire annual meeting will be held in Omaha on Monday, April 24, 1989, and I hope you will come. The meeting provides the forum for you to ask any owner-related questions you may have, and we will keep answering until all (except those dealing with portfolio activities or other proprietary information) have been dealt with.
今年的股东会将在1989年4月24日星期一在奥玛哈举行,我们希望大家都能来参加,这个会议提供一个场所让你能够提出任何与股东有关的问题,我们会一直回答到所有股东都满意为止(除了那些想要知道投资组合明牌或是内线消息的人)

After the meeting we will have several buses available to take you to visit Mrs. B at The Nebraska Furniture Mart and Ike Friedman at Borsheim. Be prepared for bargains.
会后我们将安排几台巴士载着有兴趣的股东到B太太的家具广场与波仙珠宝店,准备大捡便宜货吧!

Out-of-towners may prefer to arrive early and visit Mrs. B during the Sunday store hours of noon to five. (These Sunday hours seem ridiculously short to Mrs. B, who feels they scarcely allow her time to warm up; she much prefers the days on which the store remains open from 10 a.m. to 9 p.m.) Borsheims, however, is not open on Sunday.
外地来的股东可以会选择提早一点来,B太太的店星期天会从中午开到下午五点,只有五个小时可能不够B太太暖身,她可能希望还是能够像平日一样从早上10点到晚上9点,另外波仙珠宝星期天并不开门营业。
Ask Mrs. B the secret of her astonishingly low carpet prices. She will confide to you - as she does to everyone - how she does it: I can sell so cheap because I work for this dummy who does not know anything about carpet.?
记得问B太太地毯价格为什么会如此便宜的秘密,她一定会向跟所有人一样地偷偷跟你讲她是如何办到的,(我之所以能够卖的这么便宜是因为我的老板对于地毯根本就一无所知!)

一九八九

Our gain in net worth during 1989 was $1.515 billion, or 44.4%. Over the last 25 years (that is, since present management took over) our per-share book value has grown from $19.46 to $4,296.01, or at a rate of 23.8% compounded annually.

本公司1989年的净值增加了15亿1千5百万美元,较去年增加了44.4%,过去25年以来(也就是自从现有经营阶层接手后),每股净值从19元成长到现在的4,296美元,年复合成长率约为23.8%。

What counts, however, is intrinsic value - the figure indicating what all of our constituent businesses are rationally worth. With perfect foresight, this number can be calculated by taking all future cash flows of a business - in and out - and discounting them at prevailing interest rates. So valued, all businesses, from manufacturers of buggy whips to operators of cellular phones, become economic equals.

然而真正重要的还是实质价值-这个数字代表组合我们企业所有份子合理的价值,根据精准的远见,这个数字可由企业未来预计的现金流量(包含流进与流出),并以现行的利率予以折现,不管是马鞭的制造公司或是行动电话的业者都可以在同等的地位上,据以评估其经济价值。

Back when Berkshire's book value was $19.46, intrinsic value was somewhat less because the book value was entirely tied up in a textile business not worth the figure at which it was carried. Now most of our businesses are worth far more than their carrying values. This agreeable evolution from a discount to a premium means that Berkshire's intrinsic business value has compounded at a rate that somewhat exceeds our 23.8% annual growth in book value.


当Berkshire的帐面价值是19.46美元之时,由于主要的资产多属于纺织事业,所以实质的价值大概比帐面价值要少一点,但时至今日我们企业的价值却早已较帐面价值多的多,这代表着Berkshire实质价值成长的速度要比帐面价值每年平均23.8%的复合成长率还要再高一些。

The rear-view mirror is one thing; the windshield is another. A large portion of our book value is represented by equity securities that, with minor exceptions, are carried on our balance sheet at current market values. At yearend these securities were valued at higher prices, relative to their own intrinsic business values, than has been the case in the past. One reason is the buoyant 1989 stock market. More important, the virtues of these businesses have been widely recognized. Whereas once their stock prices were inappropriately low, they are not now.
后照镜是一回事,雨刷又是另外一回事,我们帐面价值大部分是反应我们所持有的有价证券,而这些有价证券除了少数的例外,又大多以市价在资产负债表上列示,在去年年底这些有价证券较之过去,又以比实质价值呈现更高的价格,一方面当然是因为1989年股市的飙涨,另一方面则是这些有价证券的价值得到大家的认同,也就是说过去他们的股价曾经相当的低,但这种情况如今已不复存在。

We will keep most of our major holdings, regardless of how they are priced relative to intrinsic business value. This 's untill-death-do-us-part attitude, combined with the full prices these holdings command, means that they cannot be expected to push up Berkshire's value in the future as sharply as in the past. In other words, our performance to date has benefited from a double-dip: (1) the exceptional gains in intrinsic value that our portfolio companies have achieved; (2) the additional bonus we realized as the market appropriately "corrected" the prices of these companies, raising their valuations in relation to those of the average business. We will continue to benefit from good gains in business value that we feel confident our portfolio companies will make. But our "catch-up" rewards have been realized, which means we'll have to settle for a single-dip in the future.

我们仍然会保有我们主要的持股,不管相较于实质价值,他们现在的市场价格是多少,我们对于他们至死不分离的态度加上这些股份现在的价位,意味者他们在未来可能无法再像先前那样将Berkshire的净值大幅向上推升,换句话说,我们能有现在的表现主要受惠于两方面(1)我们旗下的公司所创造出的实质价值增长 (2)由于市场对于这些公司的股价,相较于一般企业所做合理的修正所带来的额外红利。在未来我们有信心仍然可以享受公司所创造出来的价值,但是对于先前补涨的利益则因为大都已实现,这意味着我们将来只能靠前者来受惠。

We face another obstacle: In a finite world, high growth rates must self-destruct. If the base from which the growth is taking place is tiny, this law may not operate for a time. But when the base balloons, the party ends: A high growth rate eventually forges its own anchor.

此外我们还面临到另一项挑战,在有限的世界里,任何高成长的事物终将自我毁灭,若是成长的基础相对较小,则这项定律偶尔会被暂时打破,但是当基础膨胀到一定程度时,好戏就会结束,高成长终有一天会被自己所束缚。

Carl Sagan has entertainingly described this phenomenon, musing about the destiny of bacteria that reproduce by dividing into two every 15 minutes. Says Sagan: "That means four doublings an hour, and 96 doublings a day. Although a bacterium weighs only about a trillionth of a gram, its descendants, after a day of wild asexual abandon, will collectively weigh as much as a mountain...in two days, more than the sun - and before very long, everything in the universe will be made of bacteria." Not to worry, says Sagan: Some obstacle always impedes this kind of exponential growth. "The bugs run out of food, or they poison each other, or they are shy about reproducing in public."

Carl Sagan曾经开玩笑地解释这种现象,假设有一种细菌每15分钟可以分裂一次,亦即代表每一小时复制四次,一天可复制96次,虽然单一个细菌其重量只有一兆分之一公克重,但是只要经过一天无止尽的无性生殖,其重量可能会比一座山还重,经过两天后,甚至会比太阳还重,要不了多久所有的宇宙都将由这种细菌所组成,不过Sagan又说,大家不必担心,上天一定会安排障碍来阻止其倍数成长,有可能他会耗尽食物,或是毒死自己,或是有可能羞于在大庭广众之下复制。

Even on bad days, Charlie Munger (Berkshire's Vice Chairman and my partner) and I do not think of Berkshire as a bacterium. Nor, to our unending sorrow, have we found a way to double its net worth every 15 minutes. Furthermore, we are not the least bit shy about reproducing - financially - in public. Nevertheless, Sagan's observations apply. From Berkshire's present base of $4.9 billion in net worth, we will find it much more difficult to average 15% annual growth in book value than we did to average 23.8% from the $22 million we began with.

即使是在最坏的情况下,查理孟格(Berkshire的副主席兼主要合伙人),与我都不认为Berkshire会像细菌一样无止尽地成长,当然更不可能像细菌那样找到每15分钟就能够复制一次的方法,虽然我们不会像细菌那般羞于在公开场合进行复制,不过Sagan的观察还是对的,相较于刚开始的2,200万,以Berkshire目前的49亿美元的净值基础,我们实在很难像过去那样每年以15%以上的成长率增加。

Taxes

租税

Our 1989 gain of $1.5 billion was achieved after we took a charge of about $712 million for income taxes. In addition, Berkshire's share of the income taxes paid by its five major investees totaled about $175 million.

事实上,1989年Berkshire 15亿美元的增加净值还是已扣除7.12亿美元估计应付所得税后的净额,此外这还不包含其五个主要被投资公司合计已缴1.75亿美元的所得税。

Of this year's tax charge, about $172 million will be paid currently; the remainder, $540 million, is deferred. Almost all of the deferred portion relates to the 1989 increase in unrealized profits in our common stock holdings. Against this increase, we have reserved a 34% tax.

在今年的所得税费用中,大约有1.72亿美元是马上要支付的,剩下的5.4亿则可以记帐递延处理,大部分是由于1989年我们持有的股票未实现利益,以34%的预估税率计算出来的数字。

We also carry reserves at that rate against all unrealized profits generated in 1987 and 1988. But, as we explained last year, the unrealized gains we amassed before 1987 - about $1.2 billion - carry reserves booked at the 28% tax rate that then prevailed.

另外我们也1987年及1988年的未实现资本利得依照前项税率补提准备,但如同去年解释过的,我们在1987年所累积的未实现利益约12亿美元仍依照当时28%的税率提列准备。

A new accounting rule is likely to be adopted that will require companies to reserve against all gains at the current tax rate, whatever it may be. With the rate at 34%, such a rule would increase our deferred tax liability, and decrease our net worth, by about $71 million - the result of raising the reserve on our pre-1987 gain by six percentage points. Because the proposed rule has sparked widespread controversy and its final form is unclear, we have not yet made this change.

新的会计原则有可能会要求公司将所有的利得以现行的税率估算(不管实际可能会是多少),若以34%来计(等于将税率提高6个百分点),这样的规则可能会大幅增加我们帐列递延所得税的数字,并使我们的帐面净值减少约7,100万美元,由于新提出的规定引发相当大的争议,最后的结果尚难定论,所以目前公司帐上尚未做此反应。

As you can see from our balance sheet on page 27, we would owe taxes of more than $1.1 billion were we to sell all of our securities at year-end market values. Is this $1.1 billion liability equal, or even similar, to a $1.1 billion liability payable to a trade creditor 15 days after the end of the year? Obviously not - despite the fact that both items have exactly the same effect on audited net worth, reducing it by $1.1 billion.

大家可以从资产负债表上看到,若是年底我们一口气将所有的有价证券按市价全部出清,则我们要支付的所得税将高达11亿美元,但这11亿的负债真的就跟15天后要付给厂商的货款,一样或是相近吗? 很显然的并非如此,虽然在财务报表上计算的净值的方式都一样,只是很简单地减掉11亿美元。

On the other hand, is this liability for deferred taxes a meaningless accounting fiction because its payment can be triggered only by the sale of stocks that, in very large part, we have no intention of selling? Again, the answer is no.

从另一个角度来看,难道这项估计所得税负债,会因为我们从来没有意愿要把股票卖掉,所以政府课不到所得税,就表示它不具重大的意义吗? 答案很显然也不是。

In economic terms, the liability resembles an interest-free loan from the U.S. Treasury that comes due only at our election (unless, of course, Congress moves to tax gains before they are realized). This "loan" is peculiar in other respects as well: It can be used only to finance the ownership of the particular, appreciated stocks and it fluctuates in size - daily as market prices change and periodically if tax rates change. In effect, this deferred tax liability is equivalent to a very large transfer tax that is payable only if we elect to move from one asset to another. Indeed, we sold some relatively small holdings in 1989, incurring about $76 million of "transfer" tax on $224 million of gains.

就经济实质而言,这种所得税负债就好象是美国国库借给我们的无息贷款,且到期日由我们自己来决定,(当然除非国会把课税时点提早到未实现时),这种贷款还有一项很奇怪的特点,它只能被用来购买某些特定涨价的股票,而且额度会随时市场价格来变动,有时也会因为税率变动而改变,事实上这种递延所得税其实有点类似于资产移转时所要缴交的交易税,事实上我们在1989年只做了一小部份的变动,总共产生了2.24亿的资本利得,因此发生了7,600万的交易税。

Because of the way the tax law works, the Rip Van Winkle style of investing that we favor - if successful - has an important mathematical edge over a more frenzied approach. Let's look at an extreme comparison.

由于税法运作的方式,如果情况许可的话,我们偏爱李伯大梦式的投资,因为较之疯狂短线进出的方法,它有一个很重要的利基点,让我们举一个很极端的例子来做说明。

Imagine that Berkshire had only $1, which we put in a security that doubled by yearend and was then sold. Imagine further that we used the after-tax proceeds to repeat this process in each of the next 19 years, scoring a double each time. At the end of the 20 years, the 34% capital gains tax that we would have paid on the profits from each sale would have delivered about $13,000 to the government and we would be left with about $25,250. Not bad. If, however, we made a single fantastic investment that itself doubled 20 times during the 20 years, our dollar would grow to $1,048,576. Were we then to cash out, we would pay a 34% tax of roughly $356,500 and be left with about $692,000.

假设Berkshire只有1块美金的投资,但它每年却可以有一倍的报酬,假设我们将卖掉后所得的资金,用同样的方式再重复19年,结果20年下来,依照34%的税率总共贡献给国库13,000美元,而我们自己则可以拿到25,250美元,看起来还不错,然而要是我们简单一点,只做一项不变的投资,但是它同样可以赚每年一倍,则最后的金额却高达1,048,576美元,在扣除34% 356,500的所得税之后,实得约692,000美元。

The sole reason for this staggering difference in results would be the timing of tax payments. Interestingly, the government would gain from Scenario 2 in exactly the same 27:1 ratio as we - taking in taxes of $356,500 vs. $13,000 - though, admittedly, it would have to wait for its money.

之所以会有如此大的差异唯一的理由就是所得税支付的时点,有趣的是政府从后面那种情况所抽的税金还比前者高,当然政府必须等到最后才能拿到这笔税金。

We have not, we should stress, adopted our strategy favoring long-term investment commitments because of these mathematics. Indeed, it is possible we could earn greater after-tax returns by moving rather frequently from one investment to another. Many years ago, that's exactly what Charlie and I did.

必须强调的是我们并不是因为这种简单的算术就倾向采用长期投资的态度,没错经常性的变动有可能会使我们的税后报酬高一些,事实上在几年之前,查理跟我就是这样在做的。

Now we would rather stay put, even if that means slightly lower returns. Our reason is simple: We have found splendid business relationships to be so rare and so enjoyable that we want to retain all we develop. This decision is particularly easy for us because we feel that these relationships will producegood - though perhaps not optimal - financial results. Considering that, we think it makes little sense for us to give up time with people we know to be interesting and admirable for time with others we do not know and who are likely to have human qualities far closer to average. That would be akin to marrying for money - a mistake under most circumstances, insanity if one is already rich.

但现在我们觉得一动不如一静,虽然这样的投资报酬看起来可能会少一点,其中的理由很简单,我们已经找到相当难得的商业合作关系,并珍惜我们彼此间所发展出来的情感,做这种决定对我们来说一点都不困难,因为我们相信这样的关系一定会让我们有一个满意的投资成果,虽然它可能不是最佳的。也因此我们觉得实在没有意义要舍弃原来我们熟悉欣赏的人,而把时间浪费在我们不认识且人格可能会在水准以下的人身上,那不等于一个有钱人竟然还为了金钱而结婚,这未免有些精神错乱。

Sources of Reported Earnings

帐列盈余的来源

The table below shows the major sources of Berkshire's reported earnings. In this presentation, amortization of Goodwill and other major purchase-price accounting adjustments are not charged against the specific businesses to which they apply, but are instead aggregated and shown separately. This procedure lets you view the earnings of our businesses as they would have been reported had we not purchased them. I've explained in past reports why this form of presentation seems to us to be more useful to investors and managers than one utilizing generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which require purchase-price adjustments to be made on a business-by-business basis. The total net earnings we show in the table are, of course, identical to the GAAP total in our audited financial statements.

下表显示Berkshire帐列盈余的主要来源,在这张表中商誉的摊销数与购买法会计调整数会从个别被投资公司分离出来,单独加总列示,之所以这样做是为了让旗下各事业的盈余状况,不因我们的投资而有所影响,过去我一再地强调我们认为这样的表达方式,较之一般公认会计原则要求以个别企业基础做调整,不管是对投资者或是管理者来说,更有帮助,当然最后损益加总的数字仍然会与经会计师查核的数字一致。

Further information about these businesses is given in the Business Segment section on pages 37-39, and in the Management's Discussion section on pages 40-44. In these sections you also will find our segment earnings reported on a GAAP basis. For information on Wesco's businesses, I urge you to read Charlie Munger's letter, which starts on page 54. In addition, we have reprinted on page 71 Charlie's May 30, 1989 letter to the U. S. League of Savings Institutions, which conveyed our disgust with its policies and our consequent decision to resign.

年报中还有企业个别部门的信息,有关Wesco公司的信息,我强烈建议大家可以看看查理孟格所写的年报,里头包含查理在1989年5月写给美国储贷联盟的一封公开信,信中传达对于其推行政策的不满并做出辞去在其组织中的职位。

(000s omitted)

Berkshire's Share of Net Earnings (after taxes and Pre-Tax Earnings minority interests)

Operating Earnings:

Insurance Group:


 
 
Underwriting
 
Net Investment Income
 
Buffalo News
 
Fechheimer
 
Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
Kirby .
 

1989
 
$(24,400)
 
243,599
 
46,047
 
12,621
 
17,070
 
26,114
 

1988
 
$(11,081)
 
231,250
 
42,429
 
14,152
 
18,439
 
26,891
 

1989
 
$(12,259)
 
213,642
 
27,771
 
6,789
 
8,441
 
16,803
 

1988
 
$ (1,045)
 
197,779
 
25,462
 
7,720
 
9,099
 
17,842
 

 

Scott Fetzer


 
 
Manufacturing Group
 
See's Candies
 
Wesco - other than Insurance
 
World Book .
 
Amortization of Goodwill .
 

1989
 
33,165
 
34,235
 
13,008
 
25,583
 
(3,387)
 

1988
 
28,542
 
32,473
 
16,133
 
27,890
 
(2,806)
 

1989
 
19,996
 
20,626
 
9,810
 
16,372
 
(3,372)
 

1988
 
17,640
 
19,671
 
10,650
 
18,021
 
(2,806)
 

Other Purchase-Price


 
 
Accounting Charges
 
Interest Expense
 

1989
 
(5,740)
 
(42,389)
 

1988
 
(6,342)
 
(35,613)
 

1989
 
(6,668)
 
(27,098)
 

1988
 
(7,340)
 
(23,212)
 

 

Shareholder-Designated


 
 
Contributions
 
Other
 
Operating Earnings
 
Sales of Securities
 

1989
 
(5,867)
 
23,755
 
393,414
 
223,810
 

1988
 
(4,966)
 
41,059
 
418,450
 
131,671
 

1989
 
(3,814)
 
12,863
 
299,902
 
147,575
 

1988
 
(3,217)
 
27,177
 
313,441
 
85,829
 

Total Earnings - All Entities 


1989
 
1988
 
1989
 
1988
 

$617,224
 
$550,121
 
$447,477
 
$399,270
 

 

*Excludes interest expense of Scott Fetzer Financial Group and Mutual Savings & Loan.

*不包含史考特飞兹与联合储贷的利息费用

We refer you also to pages 45-51, where we have rearranged Berkshire's financial data into four segments. These correspond to the way Charlie and I think about the business and should help you calculate Berkshire's intrinsic value. Shown on these pages are balance sheets and earnings statements for: (1) our insurance operations, with their major investment positions itemized; (2) our manufacturing, publishing and retailing businesses, leaving aside certain non-operating assets and purchase-price accounting adjustments; (3) our subsidiaries engaged in finance-type operations, which are Mutual Savings and Scott Fetzer Financial; and (4) an all-other category that includes the non-operating assets (primarily marketable securities) held by the companies in segment (2), all purchase price accounting adjustments, and various assets and debts of the Wesco and Berkshire parent companies.

在后面我会提到重新将Berkshire的部门分类为四大项,这是查理跟我认为可以帮助大家计算本公司实质价值的最好方式,以下的资产负债表与盈余表就是依此分类表示(1)保险事业,并将主要投资部位归类(2)制造、出版与零售事业,扣除非本业资产与购买法的会计调整(3)金融业的子公司-诸如联合储贷与史考特飞兹财务公司(4)其它项目,包含前述非营业资产(主要是有价证券投资)与购买法调整,还有Wesco与Berkshire母公司一些其它的资产与负债。

If you combine the earnings and net worths of these four segments, you will derive totals matching those shown on our GAAP statements. However, I want to emphasize that this four-category presentation does not fall within the purview of our auditors, who in no way bless it.

如果你将这四个部门的盈余与净值加总,会得到与经会计师依公认会计原则查核的数字一致,然而我还是必须强调这种表达方式并未经过会计师的检视,我想他宁可选择不要看的好。

In addition to our reported earnings, we also benefit from significant earnings of investees that standard accounting rules do not permit us to report. On page 15, we list five major investees from which we received dividends in 1989 of about $45 million, after taxes. However, our share of the retained earnings of these investees totaled about $212 million last year, not counting large capital gains realized by GEICO and Coca-Cola. If this $212 million had been distributed to us, our own operating earnings, after the payment of additional taxes, would have been close to $500 million rather than the $300 million shown in the table.

除了帐列盈余数字之外,实际上我们受惠于会计原则不能认列的盈余,后面我烈示出五家主要被投资公司在1989年收到的税后现金股利收入合计是4,500万美元,然而若依照投资比例我们可以分得的税后盈余却高达2.12亿美元,这还不包含我们在GEICO与Coca-Cola身上所获得的资本利得,而若将这应得的2.12亿盈余分给我们,则在扣除应付的所得税之后,公司帐列的盈余可能会大幅增加为5亿美元,而不是现在的3亿美元。

The question you must decide is whether these undistributed earnings are as valuable to us as those we report. We believe they are - and even think they may be more valuable. The reason for this a-bird-in-the-bush-may-be-worth-two-in-the-hand conclusion is that earnings retained by these investees will be deployed by talented, owner-oriented managers who sometimes have better uses for these funds in their own businesses than we would have in ours. I would not make such a generous assessment of most managements, but it is appropriate in these cases.

你应该判断的关键在于这些未分配的盈余与我们帐上已经列示的盈余同样的珍贵,甚至我们相信他们以后可能还更有价值,这一鸟在林更是两鸟在手的道理,就像是与其把盈余交到我们手中,还不如留给我们信任有才干的经理人继续运用发挥,通常我对一般的经理人不会有这么高的评价,但以这几家公司来说,的确是实至名归。

In our view, Berkshire's fundamental earning power is best measured by a "look-through" approach, in which we append our share of the operating earnings retained by our investees to our own reported operating earnings, excluding capital gains in both instances. For our intrinsic business value to grow at an average of 15% per year, our "look-through" earnings must grow at about the same pace. We'll need plenty of help from our present investees, and also need to add a new one from time to time, in order to reach this 15% goal.

就我们的观点,Berkshire的基本获利能力可以用直接法来衡量,也就是我们将被投资公司真正应分给我们的盈余加到帐列的营业利益之上,同时扣除我们在这些投资已实现的资本利得,所以如果说我们想要让企业的实质价值每年平均以15%的速度成长,我们的直接盈余也必须要以同等的速度增加,因此我们相当需要现有的被投资公司给予我们更多的支持,同时也需要时时增加新进的成员才有办法达到这15%的目标。

Non-Insurance Operations

非保险营运

In the past, we have labeled our major manufacturing, publishing and retail operations "The Sainted Seven." With our acquisition of Borsheim's early in 1989, the challenge was to find a new title both alliterative and appropriate. We failed: Let's call the group "The Sainted Seven Plus One."

在过去我们将主要的制造、出版与零售业昵称为七个圣徒,在1989年波仙珠宝加入后,马上面临的一个问题就是要找到一个贴切又好听的名词,但到目前为止我们还没有想到,现在姑且将他们称作为「七加一个圣徒」吧。

This divine assemblage - Borsheim's, The Buffalo News, Fechheimer Bros., Kirby, Nebraska Furniture Mart, Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group, See's Candies, World Book - is a collection of businesses with economic characteristics that range from good to superb. Its managers range from superb to superb.

这神圣的组合-波仙珠宝、水牛城日报、费区海默、寇比吸尘器、内布拉斯加家具、史考特费兹、喜斯糖果与世界百科全书等公司,可以说是模范企业的绝佳组合,他们的管理人也可以说是好的不能再好了。

Most of these managers have no need to work for a living; they show up at the ballpark because they like to hit home runs. And that's exactly what they do. Their combined financial statements (including those of some smaller operations), shown on page 49, illustrate just how outstanding their performance is. On an historical accounting basis, after-tax earnings of these operations were 57% on average equity capital. Moreover, this return was achieved with no net leverage: Cash equivalents have matched funded debt. When I call off the names of our managers - the Blumkin, Friedman and Heldman families, Chuck Huggins, Stan Lipsey, and Ralph Schey - I feel the same glow that Miller Huggins must have experienced when he announced the lineup of his 1927 New York Yankees.

大部分的管理人根本就不需要为了讨生活而工作,他们参加球队的原因只是为了要击出全垒打,事实上这正是他们常常有的表现,他们合并的财务报表(加上一些较小的事业),显示他们的表现是如此的优异,以历史投资成本做基准,他们现在每年的税后盈余高达平均股东权益的57%,更甚者,他们并不靠举债,帐上所拥有的现金就足以清偿所有的借款,当我念到这些管理人的名字- the Blumkin, Friedman, Heldman families, Chuck Huggins, Stan Lipsey 与 Ralph Schey,这感觉就好象是名教练Miller Huggins 在宣布1927纽约洋基队的先发阵容一样。

Let's take a look, business by business:

现在让我们逐一来检视。

o In its first year with Berkshire, Borsheim's met all expectations. Sales rose significantly and are now considerably better than twice what they were four years ago when the company moved to its present location. In the six years prior to the move, sales had also doubled. Ike Friedman, Borsheim's managing genius - and I mean that - has only one speed: fast-forward.

在波仙珠宝加入Berkshire的第一年,它达到我们所有的预期目标,营业额大幅成长,较四年前刚搬到现址的时候要好上一倍,事实上在搬来之的六年前,它的业绩早已成长了一倍,Ike Friedman 波仙珠宝的管理天才,只有一种速度,那就是全速前进!

If you haven't been there, you've never seen a jewelry store like Borsheim's. Because of the huge volume it does at one location, the store can maintain an enormous selection across all price ranges. For the same reason, it can hold its expense ratio to about one-third that prevailing at jewelry stores offering comparable merchandise. The store's tight control of expenses, accompanied by its unusual buying power, enable it to offer prices far lower than those of other jewelers. These prices, in turn, generate even more volume, and so the circle goes 'round and 'round. The end result is store traffic as high as 4,000 people on seasonally-busy days.

如果你还没有到过那里,你一定没有看过有珠宝店像波仙那样,由于销量非常大,所以在那里你可以看到各式各样、各种价格的种类,同样的理由,它的营业费用开销大概只有一般同类型珠宝店的三分之一,对于费用的严格控管,加上优异的采购能力,使得它所贩售的商品要比其它珠宝店要来的便宜许多,而便宜的价格又吸引更多的顾客上门,良性循环的结果,使得该店在忙季的单日人潮流量高达四千人。

Ike Friedman is not only a superb businessman and a great showman but also a man of integrity. We bought the business without an audit, and all of our surprises have been on the plus side. "If you don't know jewelry, know your jeweler" makes sense whether you are buying the whole business or a tiny diamond.

Ike Friedman 不但是个优秀的商人、表演者,更是品格高尚的人,买下这家店时,我们没有查帐,事后所有的惊奇完全都是正面的,有句话说不懂珠宝没有关系,但你一定要有认识的珠宝商,这句话真的好有道理,不管是你要买一颗小小的钻石或是要买下一整家店都一样。

A story will illustrate why I enjoy Ike so much: Every two years I'm part of an informal group that gathers to have fun and explore a few subjects. Last September, meeting at Bishop's Lodge in Santa Fe, we asked Ike, his wife Roz, and his son Alan to come by and educate us on jewels and the jewelry business.

有一段故事可以说明为何我个人如此喜爱Ike,每两年我都会参加一个非正式的聚会,大家一起同乐并探索新事物,去年九月,在圣塔菲与主教会面,我邀请Ike跟他的太太与儿子为大家讲解珠宝。

Ike decided to dazzle the group, so he brought from Omaha about $20 million of particularly fancy merchandise. I was somewhat apprehensive - Bishop's Lodge is no Fort Knox - and I mentioned my concern to Ike at our opening party the evening before his presentation. Ike took me aside. "See that safe?" he said. "This afternoon we changed the combination and now even the hotel management doesn't know what it is." I breathed easier. Ike went on: "See those two big fellows with guns on their hips? They'll be guarding the safe all night." I now was ready to rejoin the party. But Ike leaned closer: "And besides, Warren," he confided, "the jewels aren't in the safe."

Ike为了加深大家的印象,所以特地从奥玛哈带了总值超过2,000万美元的各式珠宝,当时我个人有点担心,因为主教的住所并非像福克斯堡那般坚固,所以当晚在活动开始之前,我特别向Ike表达个人的关切,Ike把我拉到一旁说,看到那保险箱没?? 下午时我们早已掉过包,所以根本没有人可能分得清真或假,听到这话,我放心多了,Ike接着又说,看到旁边那两个腰配枪枝的彪形大汉没?? 他们会整晚守护着这只保险箱,正当我舒口气准备会到宴会中时,Ike小声说到更重要的,真正的珠宝并不在保险箱里!

How can we miss with a fellow like that - particularly when he comes equipped with a talented and energetic family, Alan, Marvin Cohn, and Don Yale.

我们怎么能够错过这样一号人物呢?? 尤其是当他背后还有一个兼具才能与活力的家族。

At See's Candies we had an 8% increase in pounds sold, even though 1988 was itself a record year. Included in the 1989 performance were excellent same-store poundage gains, our first in many years.

喜斯糖果去年糖果的销售磅数再创新高,比前一年度又增加了8%,而且单店的平均销售磅数经过好几年来,首次呈现正成长。

Advertising played an important role in this outstanding performance. We increased total advertising expenditures from $4 million to $5 million and also got copy from our agency, Hal Riney & Partners, Inc., that was 100% on the money in conveying the qualities that make See's special.

广告在这家杰出的企业中扮演着很重要的角色,去年我们的广告预算从原先的400万增加到500万美元,透过我们的广告代理商Hal Riney 将钱百分之百花在传达喜斯糖果之所以能够如此特别的品质之上。

In our media businesses, such as the Buffalo News, we sell advertising. In other businesses, such as See's, we are buyers. When we buy, we practice exactly what we preach when we sell. At See's, we more than tripled our expenditures on newspaper advertising last year, to the highest percentage of sales that I can remember. The payoff was terrific, and we thank both Hal Riney and the power of well-directed newspaper advertising for this result.

在我们的媒体事业,像是水牛城报纸,我们贩售广告,在其它的事业,像是喜斯糖果,我们是广告客户,反而变成买主,然而当我们买广告时,我们做事的方式跟我们当初在卖广告的诉求是一致的,去年喜斯糖果在报纸广告上的花费增加了有三倍之多,是我印象之中占营业额的最高比例,不过所得到的回报却更是惊人,对于能有这样的成绩,我们相当感谢Hal Riney与报纸的宣传效果。

See's splendid performances have become routine. But there is nothing routine about the management of Chuck Huggins: His daily involvement with all aspects of production and sales imparts a quality-and-service message to the thousands of employees we need to produce and distribute over 27 million pounds of candy annually. In a company with 225 shops and a massive mail order and phone business, it is no small trick to run things so that virtually every customer leaves happy. Chuck makes it look easy.

喜斯杰出的表现好象变得很自然,但Chuck Huggins的管理却绝对不是侥幸,每天他都全心全意专注于生产与销售各个环节,将品质与服务的观念传达给公司上上下下几千位员工,每年销售超过2,700万磅的糖果,在一家拥有225家店面,再加上一个邮购与电话中心,要让每个客户都能够满心欢喜的离去,实在不是一件简单的事,不过这差事到了Chuck的手上,总是让人感觉轻松自在。

o The Nebraska Furniture Mart had record sales and excellent earnings in 1989, but there was one sad note. Mrs. B - Rose Blumkin, who started the company 52 years ago with $500 - quit in May, after disagreeing with other members of the Blumkin family/management about the remodeling and operation of the carpet department.

内布拉斯加家具店的业绩与盈余在1989年又创新高,但是这伴随着一项坏消息,52年前以500美元创立这家店的B太太,由于与家族其它成员在内部改装与地毯部门的营运上意见不合,在五月决定离职。

Mrs. B probably has made more smart business decisions than any living American, but in this particular case I believe the other members of the family were entirely correct: Over the past three years, while the store's other departments increased sales by 24%, carpet sales declined by 17% (but not because of any lack of sales ability by Mrs. B, who has always personally sold far more merchandise than any other salesperson in the store).

B太太可能是现存美国人中最聪明的生意人,但在这件事上我却必须站在家族其他成员的这一边,过去三年来,当店内其它部门营收平均成长24%之时,地毯销售却减少17%,(这并不是代表B太太的销售技巧退步,因为她个人卖的商品绝对比店内其它营业员要多的多)。

You will be pleased to know that Mrs. B continues to make Horatio Alger's heroes look like victims of tired blood. At age 96 she has started a new business selling - what else? - carpet and furniture. And as always, she works seven days a week.

大家应该很高兴B太太让Horatio Alger笔下的英雄看起来像是浴血奋战后的失败者,以96岁的高龄,她却执意再另创新事业,而且还是一样,卖家具跟地毯,同样地,每个礼拜工作七天。

At the Mart Louie, Ron, and Irv Blumkin continue to propel what is by far the largest and most successful home furnishings store in the country. They are outstanding merchants, outstanding managers, and a joy to be associated with. One reading on their acumen: In the fourth quarter of 1989, the carpet department registered a 75.3% consumer share in the Omaha market, up from 67.7% a year earlier and over six times that of its nearest competitor.

在原来的家具店,B太太的子孙们还是继续支撑这家全美最大也最成功的家具事业,他们实在是相当优秀的生意人,管理者,跟他们一起相处实在是很愉快的一件事。有一件事可以显示他们的聪明才智,在1989年第四季,地毯部门在奥玛哈地区的市场占有率从前一年度的67.7%增加到75.3%,相当于第二名竞争者的六倍。

NFM and Borsheim's follow precisely the same formula for success: (1) unparalleled depth and breadth of merchandise at one location; (2) the lowest operating costs in the business; (3) the shrewdest of buying, made possible in part by the huge volumes purchased; (4) gross margins, and therefore prices, far below competitors'; and (5) friendly personalized service with family members on hand at all times.

NFM与波仙遵循的是相同的成功模式(1)商品种类齐全、应有尽有(2)营运成本极低(3)大量采购进货成本低(4)毛利高但售价因销量压低(5)亲切的服务与家族式的管理。

Another plug for newspapers: NFM increased its linage in the local paper by over 20% in 1989 - off a record 1988 - and remains the paper's largest ROP advertiser by far. (ROP advertising is the kind printed in the paper, as opposed to that in preprinted inserts.) To my knowledge, Omaha is the only city in which a home furnishings store is the advertising leader. Many retailers cut space purchases in 1989; our experience at See's and NFM would indicate they made a major mistake.

另外提供一则新闻插播,NFM在1989年增加20%的报纸广告量,依旧是当地报纸的最大广告客户,(ROP是指印在报纸上的广告,与事先印好的夹报有别),就我所知,奥玛哈是唯一一个以家具业者为最大报纸广告客户的地区,许多客户在1989年都大砍广告量,但是就我们在喜斯糖果与NFM的经验来说,这实在是个天大的错误。

The Buffalo News continued to star in 1989 in three important ways: First, among major metropolitan papers, both daily and Sunday, the News is number one in household penetration - the percentage of local households that purchase it each day. Second, in "news hole" - the portion of the paper devoted to news - the paper stood at 50.1% in 1989 vs. 49.5% in 1988, a level again making it more news-rich than any comparable American paper. Third, in a year that saw profits slip at many major papers, the News set its seventh consecutive profit record.

水牛城日报在1989年有三点特别值得一提,首先在所有主要的都会报纸中(不管是平时或是假日),水牛城的家庭渗透率是最高的(即当地家庭每天订购报纸的户数),第二是新闻比率(报纸所有版面中,新闻所占的比率),相较于1988年的49.5%,1989年则是50.1%,这比率代表水牛城报纸的新闻内容要比其它同类型的报纸要来的丰富许多,第三在同业获利频频下滑之际,水牛城的获利连续第七年成长。

To some extent, these three factors are related, though obviously a high-percentage news hole, by itself, reduces profits significantly. A large and intelligently-utilized news hole, however, attracts a wide spectrum of readers and thereby boosts penetration. High penetration, in turn, makes a newspaper particularly valuable to retailers since it allows them to talk to the entire community through a single "megaphone." A low-penetration paper is a far less compelling purchase for many advertisers and will eventually suffer in both ad rates and profits.

某种程度而言,这三个因素是相关的,虽然很明显的高新闻比率会大幅减少获利,一个精彩丰富的新闻能够吸引广大的读者,从而增加渗透率,而高的渗透率回头来又会使得报纸成为广告商喜爱的对象,因为这等于让他们可以透过一个单一的管道,对整个社区进行宣传,相对的一家渗透率低的报纸对于广告商的吸引力就大大的降低,到最后一定会使得广告费收入与获利节节下滑。

It should be emphasized that our excellent penetration is neither an accident nor automatic. The population of Erie County, home territory of the News, has been falling - from 1,113,000 in 1970 to 1,015,000 in 1980 to an estimated 966,000 in 1988. Circulation figures tell a different story. In 1975, shortly before we started our Sunday edition, the Courier-Express, a long-established Buffalo paper, was selling 207,500 Sunday copies in Erie County. Last year - with population at least 5% lower - the News sold an average of 292,700 copies. I believe that in no other major Sunday market has there been anything close to that increase in penetration.

必须强调的是我们的渗透率并不是个意外抑或是自然而然的一件事,以水牛城报纸的大本营Erie市来说,当地的人口数从1970年的111万人一路减少到1980年的101万,乃至于1988年的96.6万人,但报纸发行量的变化却完全相反, 1975年在我们刚准备开始发行周日版之前,Courier-Express一家水牛城当地相当悠久的报纸每周的发行量约为20万份,去年在总人口比当初还少5%的情况下,水牛城的发行份数却将近有30万份,我相信在美国没有其它地区能够像我们这样成长的。

When this kind of gain is made - and when a paper attains an unequaled degree of acceptance in its home town - someone is doing something right. In this case major credit clearly belongs to Murray Light, our long-time editor who daily creates an informative, useful, and interesting product. Credit should go also to the Circulation and Production Departments: A paper that is frequently late, because of production problems or distribution weaknesses, will lose customers, no matter how strong its editorial content.

当我们能够如此成长同时又得到家乡父老如此的支持,一定有人居功厥伟,我想总编辑Murray Light应该是当之无愧,是他日复一日创造出如此发人深省、有用且有趣的产品,当然发行与生产部门也一样功不可没,一家报纸若是因为印刷或配送问题而时常误点,不管他的内容有多精彩丰富,一定会影响客户订阅的意愿的。

Stan Lipsey, publisher of the News, has produced profits fully up to the strength of our product. I believe Stan's managerial skills deliver at least five extra percentage points in profit margin compared to the earnings that would be achieved by an average manager given the same circumstances. That is an amazing performance, and one that could only be produced by a talented manager who knows - and cares - about every nut and bolt of the business.

Stan Lipsey报纸的发行人,利用获利来加强我们的产品竞争力,我相信Stan管理能力至少让我们报纸的营业利益增加五个百分点以上,这真是令人赞叹的表现,这只有完全熟悉企业大大小小事物的优秀经理人才有办法做到这样的成绩。

Stan's knowledge and talents, it should be emphasized, extend to the editorial product. His early years in the business were spent on the news side and he played a key role in developing and editing a series of stories that in 1972 won a Pulitzer Prize for the Sun Newspaper of Omaha. Stan and I have worked together for over 20 years, through some bad times as well as good, and I could not ask for a better partner.

Stan的知识与才能也延伸到编辑出版之上,早期他个人的生涯多花在新闻采访之上,曾经花了相当多的时间报导一系列的故事,并在1972年为奥玛哈太阳报赢得新闻界的最高荣誉-普立兹奖,Stan与我已经共事长达20年之久,一起经历各种风雨、患难与共,实在很难再找到像他这么好的伙伴。

At Fechheimer, the Heldman clan - Bob, George, Gary, Roger and Fred - continue their extraordinary performance. Profits in 1989 were down somewhat because of problems the business experienced in integrating a major 1988 acquisition. These problems will be ironed out in time. Meanwhile, return on invested capital at Fechheimer remains splendid.

在费区海默,Heldman家族继续他们不凡的表现,1989年的获利因为1988年的一件大的购并案出了点问题而略受影响,所幸问题及时获得解决,所以费区海默的投资报酬还是相当不错。

Like all of our managers, the Heldmans have an exceptional command of the details of their business. At last year's annual meeting I mentioned that when a prisoner enters San Quentin, Bob and George probably know his shirt size. That's only a slight exaggeration: No matter what area of the country is being discussed, they know exactly what is going on with major customers and with the competition.

像我们其它的管理人,Heldmans家族对于其事业的了解钜细靡遗,去年的年度股东会时我曾经半开玩笑的说,只要犯人一进到监狱,Bob就可以马上只到他的身材Size是多少,不管你跟他们提到全美那一个地区,他们都相当清楚当地的市场与竞争对手的状况。

Though we purchased Fechheimer four years ago, Charlie and I have never visited any of its plants or the home office in Cincinnati. We're much like the lonesome Maytag repairman: The Heldman managerial product is so good that a service call is never needed.

虽然我们是在四年之前买下费区海默的,但查理跟我却从来没有去参观过他们的工厂或是位在辛辛那提的总部,我们有点像是无聊的Maytag维修工人,由Heldman所管理的东西因为太好根本不会坏,以致于我们从来就没有接过叫修的电话。

o Ralph Schey continues to do a superb job in managing our largest group - World Book, Kirby, and the Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Companies. Aggregate earnings of these businesses have increased every year since our purchase and returns on invested capital continue to be exceptional. Ralph is running an enterprise large enough, were it standing alone, to be on the Fortune 500. And he's running it in a fashion that would put him high in the top decile, measured by return on equity.

Ralph Schey还是继续发挥他的长才,为我们管理-世界百科全书、寇比吸尘器与史考特飞兹所组成的大集团,自从我们买下这些企业以来,他们的总盈余年年都成长,投资的报酬相当可观,Ralph所领导的企业集团真是够大,单单他旗下事业加总起来就足以名列财星五百大,而若以投资报酬的角度来看,大概可以让他排在前十名。

For some years, World Book has operated out of a single location in Chicago's Merchandise Mart. Anticipating the imminent expiration of its lease, the business is now decentralizing into four locations. The expenses of this transition are significant; nevertheless profits in 1989 held up well. It will be another year before costs of the move are fully behind us.

有好几年,世界百科全书只在芝加哥的一个商业广场集中营运,有鉴于租约即将到期,未来它将分散成四个据点,搬迁的费用相当的庞大,不过尽管如此1989年的获利还是会增加,这项搬迁的费用要经过好几年的时间才会慢慢地消化吸收掉。

Kirby's business was particularly strong last year, featuring large gains in export sales. International business has more than doubled in the last two years and quintupled in the past four; its share of unit sales has risen from 5% to 20%. Our largest capital expenditures in 1989 were at Kirby, in preparation for a major model change in 1990.

寇比的生意去年特别的旺,尤其是在外销方面的成长惊人,近两年来的业绩已成长了一倍,累计四年来成长了四倍,市场占有率从5%增加到20%,我们1989年最大的资本支出就花在寇比身上,预计在1990年会有一次大改款。

Ralph's operations contribute about 40% of the total earnings of the non-insurance group whose results are shown on page 49. When we bought Scott Fetzer at the start of 1986, our acquisition of Ralph as a manager was fully as important as our acquisition of the businesses. In addition to generating extraordinary earnings, Ralph also manages capital extremely well. These abilities have produced funds for Berkshire that, in turn, have allowed us to make many other profitable commitments.

Ralph的事业部门所贡献的盈余大概占非保险部门的四成左右,当我们在1986年初买下史考特飞兹时,能将Ralph一并挖过来当经理人,跟我们当初买下这家公司一样地重要,除了贡献可观的盈余之外,Ralph管理资金也是一把罩。这些能力使得Berkshire能够获得源源不绝的资金,让我们回头可以再做更多更好的投资。

And that completes our answer to the 1927 Yankees.

以上就是我们的职棒先发阵容!

Insurance Operations

保险事业营运

Shown below is an updated version of our usual table presenting key figures for the property-casualty insurance industry:

下表是产物意外险业的几项重要的指数

Statutory

Yearly Change Combined Ratio Yearly Change Inflation Rate in Premiums After Policyholder in Incurred Measured by Written (%) Dividends Losses (%) GNP Deflator (%)


1981
 
1982
 
1983
 
1984
 
1985
 
1986
 
1987
 
1988
 
1989 (Est.)
 

3.8
 
3.7
 
5.0
 
8.5
 
22.1
 
22.2
 
9.4
 
4.4
 
2.1
 

106.0
 
109.6
 
112.0
 
118.0
 
116.3
 
108.0
 
104.6
 
105.4
 
110.4
 

6.5
 
8.4
 
6.8
 
16.9
 
16.1
 
13.5
 
7.8
 
5.5
 
8.7
 

9.6
 
6.5
 
3.8
 
3.8
 
3.0
 
2.6
 
3.1
 
3.3
 
4.2
 

 

Source: A.M. Best Co.

The combined ratio represents total insurance costs (losses incurred plus expenses) compared to revenue from premiums: A ratio below 100 indicates an underwriting profit, and one above 100 indicates a loss. When the investment income that an insurer earns from holding policyholders' funds ("the float") is taken into account, a combined ratio in the 107-111 range typically produces an overall breakeven result, exclusive of earnings on the funds provided by shareholders.

综合比率代表保险的总成本(理赔损失加上费用)占保费收入的比例,比率在100以下代表有承保的损失,在100以上则代表有承保的获利综合比率代表的是保险的总成本(损失加上费用)占保费收入的比率,100以下代表会有承销利益,100以上代表会有承销损失,若把持有保费收入浮存金(扣除股东权益部份所产生的盈余)所产生的投资收益列入考量,损益两平的范围大概是在107-111之间。

For the reasons laid out in previous reports, we expect the industry's incurred losses to grow by about 10% annually, even in years when general inflation runs considerably lower. (Actually, over the last 25 years, incurred losses have grown at a still faster rate, 11%.) If premium growth meanwhile materially lags that 10% rate, underwriting losses will mount, though the industry's tendency to underreserve when business turns bad may obscure their size for a time.

基于前几次年报所说明的理由,即使是通货膨胀在这几年来相对温和,我们预期保险业每年损失增加的比率约在10%左右,若是保费收入成长没有到达10%以上,损失一定会增加,(事实上过去25年以来,理赔损失系以11%的速度在成长),虽然保险公司在景气不好时,会习惯性地将损失暂时隐藏起来。

Last year we said the climb in the combined ratio was "almost certain to continue - and probably will accelerate - for at least two more years." This year we will not predict acceleration, but otherwise must repeat last year's forecast. Premium growth is running far below the 10% required annually. Remember also that a 10% rate would only stabilize the combined ratio, not bring it down.

去年我们曾说若综合比率八成会继续上升,甚至在未来两年内还会加速,今年我们不再做加速的预期,不然的话还会再重复去年的预测,保费收入成长的幅度远低于每年最低10%成长的要求,而且大家要记住,10%只表示能抑止综合比率上升的情况,却不能使它下降。

The increase in the combined ratio in 1989 was a little more than we had expected because catastrophes (led by Hurricane Hugo) were unusually severe. These abnormalities probably accounted for about two points of the increase. If 1990 is more of a "normal" year, the combined ratio should rise only minimally from the catastrophe-swollen base of 1989. In 1991, though, the ratio is apt to climb by a greater degree.

1989年的综合比率增加的幅度略高于我们的预期,原因在于意外灾害(主要是Hugo飓风)特别严重,这部份造成的影响大约占了2个百分点,假若1990年能够回到正常情况,相较于1989年略微膨胀的基础,综合比率可能只会增加一点点,然后到了1991年可能又会提高增加的幅度。

Commentators frequently discuss the "underwriting cycle" and speculate about its next turn. If that term is used to connote rhythmic qualities, it is in our view a misnomer that leads to faulty thinking about the industry's fundamental economics.

产业评论家常常会讨论到承保循环并预测它下一次反转的时点,若那个名词是用来暗示有节奏性的本质,则我们认为那他们就有点张冠李戴的把这个产业情况搞错了。

The term was appropriate some decades ago when the industry and regulators cooperated to conduct the business in cartel fashion. At that time, the combined ratio fluctuated rhythmically for two reasons, both related to lags. First, data from the past were analyzed and then used to set new "corrected" rates, which were subsequently put into effect by virtually all insurers. Second, the fact that almost all policies were then issued for a one-to three-year term - which meant that it took a considerable time for mispriced policies to expire - delayed the impact of new rates on revenues. These two lagged responses made combined ratios behave much like alternating current. Meanwhile, the absence of significant price competition guaranteed that industry profits, averaged out over the cycle, would be satisfactory.

这个名词在几十年前当产业界与政府单位通力合作维持一个类似卡特尔组织时或许还适用,在那个年代,综合比率只因两个原因上下变动,两者都具有递延性,第一是过去的信息会被分析然而据以订定新的费率,一体适用于所有的保险业者之上;第二所有的保单通常是一次以三年为期,这代表着一张有问题的保单通常要花三年才能解决,所以新费率的实施影响有其递延性,这两个因素使得综合比率的变化有脉络可循,同时没有价格的竞争通常就保证可以有稳定的获利,意味着整个循环下来可以获致满意的报酬。

The cartel period is long gone. Now the industry has hundreds of participants selling a commodity-like product at independently-established prices. Such a configuration - whether the product being sold is steel or insurance policies - is certain to cause subnormal profitability in all circumstances but one: a shortage of usable capacity. Just how often these periods occur and how long they last determines the average profitability of the industry in question.

不过卡特尔的年代早已过去,现在的产业有几百家公司在销售同一种商品,价格各自独立,在这种情况下,不管所卖的商品是钢铁或是保单,除了产能短缺的情况之外,整体同业的获利一定很可怜,不过却须视所处产业的获利情况来决定短缺情况的发生时点与期间长短。

In most industries, capacity is described in physical terms. In the insurance world, however, capacity is customarily described in financial terms; that is, it's considered appropriate for a company to write no more than X dollars of business if it has Y dollars of net worth. In practice, however, constraints of this sort have proven ineffective. Regulators, insurance brokers, and customers are all slow to discipline companies that strain their resources. They also acquiesce when companies grossly overstate their true capital. Hence, a company can write a great deal of business with very little capital if it is so inclined. At bottom, therefore, the amount of industry capacity at any particular moment primarily depends on the mental state of insurance managers.

在大部分的产业,产能是以具体的事物来呈现,不过在保险的世界里,产能所代表的却是指财务数字,亦即假设一家公司的净值有Y,那么他可以承接的保单大概就只能有X,就实务而言,做这样的限制其实效果相当有限,主管机关、保险掮客与客户对于其节制背后的保险公司的反应都很慢,而且就算真正的资本有被夸大的情况,他们也给予姑息,因此一家资本额不大的保险公司若他们愿意,照样可以接下一大堆保单,因此整个保险业的供给能量,主要还是视保险公司经理人本身的心态而定。

All this understood, it is not very difficult to prognosticate the industry's profits. Good profits will be realized only when there is a shortage of capacity. Shortages will occur only when insurers are frightened. That happens rarely - and most assuredly is not happening now.

在了解内情之后,大家不难预知这个产业未来的获利情况,获利要好只有当供给短缺时才有可能发生,而供给短缺只有当保险业者感到害怕时才有可能发生,而偏偏这种情况又很少见,且可以确定短期之内不会出现。

Some analysts have argued that the more onerous taxes recently imposed on the insurance industry and 1989's catastrophes - Hurricane Hugo and the California earthquake - will cause prices to strengthen significantly. We disagree. These adversities have not destroyed the eagerness of insurers to write business at present prices. Therefore, premium volume won't grow by 10% in 1990, which means the negative underwriting trend will not reverse.

有些分析师认为最近刚实施的保险业新税法过于繁重,同时加上Hugo飓风与加州的地震,将会是保险费率大幅提高,我们并不认同这样的看法,因为这些负面的因素并不会迫使同业不以现在的价格接受保单,因此1990年的保费收入应该无法成长10%以上,也就是说整体的承保绩效可能还会继续恶化。

The industry will meantime say it needs higher prices to achieve profitability matching that of the average American business. Of course it does. So does the steel business. But needs and desires have nothing to do with the long-term profitability of industries. Instead, economic fundamentals determine the outcome. Insurance profitability will improve only when virtually all insurers are turning away business despite higher prices. And we're a long way from that point.

业者同时也会宣称保险业需要调高价格才能维持一般美国企业的获利水平,当然事实确是如此,钢铁业也一样,但需要与想要与产业长期的获利并无绝对相关,反而是经济实质现况才是决定结果的关键因素,保险业的获利要改进,只有靠所有业者通力合作,除非价格合理否则就不接生意,但现在离那样的情况还很远。

Berkshire's premium volume may drop to $150 million or so in 1990 (from a high of $1 billion in 1986), partly because our traditional business continues to shrink and partly because the contract under which we received 7% of the business of Fireman's Fund expired last August. Whatever the size of the drop, it will not disturb us. We have no interest in writing insurance that carries a mathematical expectation of loss; we experience enough disappointments doing transactions we believe to carry an expectation of profit.

Berkshire 1990年的保费收入可能会降至1.5亿美元左右,(相较于1986年的10亿美元高点),一方面是因为我们传统的业务持续在萎缩,一方面是消防人员退休基金这项业务在去年八月已到期,但不管业务量减少多少,一点都不影响我们,我们完全没有兴趣去接那种一看就会赔钱的保单,光是那些看起来有赚头的生意就够我们受的了。

However, our appetite for appropriately-priced business is ample, as one tale from 1989 will tell. It concerns "CAT covers," which are reinsurance contracts that primary insurance companies (and also reinsurers themselves) buy to protect themselves against a single catastrophe, such as a tornado or hurricane, that produces losses from a large number of policies. In these contracts, the primary insurer might retain the loss from a single event up to a maximum of, say, $10 million, buying various layers of reinsurance above that level. When losses exceed the retained amount, the reinsurer typically pays 95% of the excess up to its contractual limit, with the primary insurer paying the remainder. (By requiring the primary insurer to keep 5% of each layer, the reinsurer leaves him with a financial stake in each loss settlement and guards against his throwing away the reinsurer's money.)

然而我们对于价格合理的生意胃口却很足够,1989年有一件事可以说明,那就是CAT防护,也就是一般保险公司(也包含再保公司本身)都会向再保公司签约买下再保合约,来免于承担像是龙卷风或是飓风等单一意外事件所可能引发钜额损失的风险,在这些再保合约中,原始的保险公司可能会保留一个单一的损失上限,例如1,000万美金,然后在此之上买进好几层的再保险,当损失超过自留的部份时,再保公司依规定就要支付超过的部份,最高比例可达95%,(之所以要求保险公司本身每层保留5%,是为了让保险公司与再保公司站在同一阵线,避免保险公司慷再保公司之凯)。

CAT covers are usually one-year policies that also provide for one automatic reinstatement, which requires a primary insurer whose coverage has been exhausted by a catastrophe to buy a second cover for the balance of the year in question by paying another premium. This provision protects the primary company from being "bare" for even a brief period after a first catastrophic event. The duration of "an event" is usually limited by contract to any span of 72 hours designated by the primary company. Under this definition, a wide-spread storm, causing damage for three days, will be classified as a single event if it arises from a single climatic cause. If the storm lasts four days, however, the primary company will file a claim carving out the 72 consecutive hours during which it suffered the greatest damage. Losses that occurred outside that period will be treated as arising from a separate event.

CAT防护的保单通常是一年期,一般可以自动延长一年,这样的条款主要是保护保险公司避免因为重大灾害发生后,投保的空窗期,事件发生的持续期间通常由合约限定在72小时以内,在这种定义之下,一场持续三天的大风暴所造成的损害,可被归类为单一事件。要是大风暴持续四天以上,则保险公司可以切割出其受害最惨重的72小时,超过的部份则必须视为另一个独立的事件。

In 1989, two unusual things happened. First, Hurricane Hugo generated $4 billion or more of insured loss, at a pace, however, that caused the vast damage in the Carolinas to occur slightly more than 72 hours after the equally severe damage in the Caribbean. Second, the California earthquake hit within weeks, causing insured damage that was difficult to estimate, even well after the event. Slammed by these two - or possibly three - major catastrophes, some primary insurers, and also many reinsurers that had themselves bought CAT protection, either used up their automatic second cover or became uncertain as to whether they had done so.

1989年有两件特殊的事件发生,第一Hugo飓风造成40亿美元的损失,不过之后不久72小时,又在加勒比海发生相同规模的灾害;第二加州大地震在几个礼拜内又接连发生,造成难以估计的损失,受到这两个事件严重的打击,或者应该说是三个,许多有买CAT防身的保险公司及再保公司,立刻使用第二次投保权。

At that point sellers of CAT policies had lost a huge amount of money - perhaps twice because of the reinstatements - and not taken in much in premiums. Depending upon many variables, a CAT premium might generally have run 3% to 15% of the amount of protection purchased. For some years, we've thought premiums of that kind inadequate and have stayed away from the business.

在当时许多卖CAT保单的业者亏了一屁股,尤其是第二次投保部份,根本收不到足够的保费,由于有许多变量,保费通常会是在保额的3%到15%不等,有好几年,我们认为这种保费收入并不合理,所以没有介入这个市场。

But because the 1989 disasters left many insurers either actually or possibly bare, and also left most CAT writers licking their wounds, there was an immediate shortage after the earthquake of much-needed catastrophe coverage. Prices instantly became attractive, particularly for the reinsurance that CAT writers themselves buy. Just as instantly, Berkshire Hathaway offered to write up to $250 million of catastrophe coverage, advertising that proposition in trade publications. Though we did not write all the business we sought, we did in a busy ten days book a substantial amount.

但是1989年的大灾害使得许多CAT业者穷于填补保险客户的伤口,使得地震灾后保单供给发生短缺,保费价格很快地就回到相当吸引人的水准,尤其是再保公司本身自己所买的保单,若有需要,Berkshire可以马上就签下2.5亿美元以上的保单,虽然并不是所有上门的生意都接,但忙个十天下来所签的保单金额也是相当可观。

Our willingness to put such a huge sum on the line for a loss that could occur tomorrow sets us apart from any reinsurer in the world. There are, of course, companies that sometimes write $250 million or even far more of catastrophe coverage. But they do so only when they can, in turn, reinsure a large percentage of the business with other companies. When they can't "lay off" in size, they disappear from the market.

世界上再没有其它再保公司会像我们一样,愿意一口气接受如此大金额的投保,当然也有保险公司偶尔会愿意接下二亿五美金的灾害理赔保险,但是其提通常是他们可以再向其它保险公司分保出去,当他们找不到分散风险的再保公司时,他们会马上退出市场。

Berkshire's policy, conversely, is to retain the business we write rather than lay it off. When rates carry an expectation of profit, we want to assume as much risk as is prudent. And in our case, that's a lot.

相反地Berkshire的政策则是保留大部分的保额而不是把他们给分配掉,当保险费率看起来有利可图,我们很愿意承担更多的风险,以外界的标准而言,那应该是个大数字。

We will accept more reinsurance risk for our own account than any other company because of two factors: (1) by the standards of regulatory accounting, we have a net worth in our insurance companies of about $6 billion - the second highest amount in the United States; and (2) we simply don't care what earnings we report quarterly, or even annually, just as long as the decisions leading to those earnings (or losses) were reached intelligently.

我们之所以愿意承担比一般保险公司更多的风险,主要有两个原因: (1)以会计原则的规范标准,我们的保险公司净值高达60亿美金,位居全美第二(2)我们并不在乎每季的短期盈余数字,就算是每年也无所谓,只要长期而言,这些决策是基于稳健获利的立场所作的明智决定。

Obviously, if we write $250 million of catastrophe coverage and retain it all ourselves, there is some probability that we will lose the full $250 million in a single quarter. That probability is low, but it is not zero. If we had a loss of that magnitude, our after-tax cost would be about $165 million. Though that is far more than Berkshire normally earns in a quarter, the damage would be a blow only to our pride, not to our well-being.

很明显地如此我们接下二亿五的灾害保险,并自留大部分的保额,很有可能我们会在一夕之间损失这二亿五,这种机率虽然很低,却并不表示没有可能,若真的发生那样的损失,我们的税后损失大概会是1.65亿,相较于Berkshire每季所赚的盈余来说,只能算是个小数字,虽然会我们会丢了面子,但还不至于失了里子。

This posture is one few insurance managements will assume. Typically, they are willing to write scads of business on terms that almost guarantee them mediocre returns on equity. But they do not want to expose themselves to an embarrassing single-quarter loss, even if the managerial strategy that causes the loss promises, over time, to produce superior results. I can understand their thinking: What is best for their owners is not necessarily best for the managers. Fortunately Charlie and I have both total job security and financial interests that are identical with those of our shareholders. We are willing to look foolish as long as we don't feel we have acted foolishly.

这种态度在保险业界来说实在是少之又少,通常一般的保险公司会愿意接下很多的保单以确定公司每年可以获得一定的利益,但他们却不愿意公司在某一个单季发生大额的损失,虽然这种短期损失可以获致更长远的利益;我想我能够体谅他们的立场,对股东最有利的事并一定对经理人最好,很幸运的查理跟我的工作保障与身家利益与所有的股东皆一致,我们愿意被人当作是傻子,只要我们自己知道我们不是个傻子。

Our method of operation, incidentally, makes us a stabilizing force in the industry. We add huge capacity when capacity is short and we become less competitive only when capacity is abundant. Of course, we don't follow this policy in the interest of stabilization - we follow it because we believe it to be the most sensible and profitable course of action. Nevertheless, our behavior steadies the market. In this case, Adam Smith's invisible hand works as advertised.

事实上我们这样的经营策略让我们成为市场上的稳定力量,当供给短缺时,我们可以马上进场满足大家的需求,而当市场过于饱和时,我们又会立即退出市场观望,当然我们这样的做法并不只是为了达到市场的稳定而已,我们之所以会这样做是因为我们认为这样才是最合理、对大家最有利的做法,当然这样的做法间接达到稳定市场的效果,也符合亚当.史密斯所提市场有一只看不见的手的说法。

Currently, we hold an exceptional amount of float compared to premium volume. This circumstance should produce quite favorable insurance results for us during the next few years as it did in 1989. Our underwriting losses should be tolerable and our investment income from policyholder funds large. This pleasant situation, however, will gradually deteriorate as our float runs off.

现阶段相较于保费收入,我们自留的大部分的浮存金,这样的情形应该可以让我们往后几年的获利像1989年那样不错的结果,承保损失应该还可以接受,相较之下我们靠投资所赚得的利益却更为惊人,只是这种好现象可能会随着浮存金的流失而渐渐光芒不再。

At some point, however, there will be an opportunity for us to write large amounts of profitable business. Mike Goldberg and his management team of Rod Eldred, Dinos Iordanou, Ajit Jain, Phil Urban, and Don Wurster continue to position us well for this eventuality.

不过在其它方面,还是有机会能够让我们找到大额且有利可图的生意,Mike Goldberg与其经营团队,长期而言可以为我们创造有利的地位。

Marketable Securities

有价证券投资

In selecting marketable securities for our insurance companies, we generally choose among five major categories: (1) long-term common stock investments, (2) medium-term fixed income securities, (3) long-term fixed income securities, (4) short-term cash equivalents, and (5) short-term arbitrage commitments.

在为我们的保险事业选择有价证券投资之时,我们主要有五种选择(1)长期股票投资(2)长期固定收益债券(3)中期固定收益债券(4)短期约当现金(5)短期套利交易。

We have no particular bias when it comes to choosing from these categories; we just continuously search among them for the highest after-tax returns as measured by "mathematical expectation," limiting ourselves always to investment alternatives we think we understand. Our criteria have nothing to do with maximizing immediately reportable earnings; our goal, rather, is to maximize eventual net worth.

对于这五种类型的交易,我们没有特别的偏好,我们只是持续不断地寻找最高的税后报酬预计的数学期望值,且仅限于我们自认为了解熟悉的投资,我们无意让与短期的帐面盈余好看,我们的目标是让长期的净值极大化。

Below we list our common stock holdings having a value of over $100 million. A small portion of these investments belongs to subsidiaries of which Berkshire owns less than 100%.

下表是我们超过一亿美元以上的普通股投资,一部份的投资系属于Berkshire关系企业所持有)。

12/31/89

Shares Company Cost Market (000s omitted)

3,000,000 Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. ......... .......... $ 517,500 $1,692,375

23,350,000 The Coca-Cola Co. ................. ........ 1,023,920 1,803,787

2,400,000 Federal Home Loan Mortgage Cor..... 71,729 161,100

6,850,000 GEICO Corp. .................. .. ... ........... 45,713 1,044,625

1,727,765 The Washington Post Company ......... 9,731 486,366

This list of companies is the same as last year's and in only one case has the number of shares changed: Our holdings of Coca-Cola increased from 14,172,500 shares at the end of 1988 to 23,350,000.

表上的投资组合与去年几乎相同,只有一项投资的持股有变动,我们将可口可乐的持股数由去年的1,417万股提高到今年的2,335万股。

This Coca-Cola investment provides yet another example of the incredible speed with which your Chairman responds to investment opportunities, no matter how obscure or well-disguised they may be. I believe I had my first Coca-Cola in either 1935 or 1936. Of a certainty, it was in 1936 that I started buying Cokes at the rate of six for 25 cents from Buffett & Son, the family grocery store, to sell around the neighborhood for 5 cents each. In this excursion into high-margin retailing, I duly observed the extraordinary consumer attractiveness and commercial possibilities of the product.

这次的可口可乐投资,提供了一个机会来证明你们的董事长快速反应投资机会,不管这些机会是如何的不明确或是被隐藏,我记得我是在1935年或1936年第一次喝到可口可乐的,不过可以确定的是,我从1936年开始以25分钱半打从巴菲特兄弟杂货店批货后,在以每罐5分钱卖给邻居街坊,作为我个人从事高毛利零售业的开端,我也深深观察到这项产品给消费者特殊的吸引力及背后所代表庞大的商机。

I continued to note these qualities for the next 52 years as Coke blanketed the world. During this period, however, I carefully avoided buying even a single share, instead allocating major portions of my net worth to street railway companies, windmill manufacturers, anthracite producers, textile businesses, trading-stamp issuers, and the like. (If you think I'm making this up, I can supply the names.) Only in the summer of 1988 did my brain finally establish contact with my eyes.

在往后的52年内当可口可乐席卷全世界的同时,我也持续地注意到这种特质,然而在同一段期间,由于我个人过于小心谨慎以致于竟然连一股都没有买,反而将大部分的个人资产投注在街车公司、纺织公司、煤炭公司与邮票公司之类的股票之上,(如果你认为这是我编造的笑话,我可以再告诉大家确实的公司名称),终于到了1988年的夏天,我的大脑与眼睛完成了联机动作。

What I then perceived was both clear and fascinating. After drifting somewhat in the 1970's, Coca-Cola had in 1981 become a new company with the move of Roberto Goizueta to CEO. Roberto, along with Don Keough, once my across-the-street neighbor in Omaha, first rethought and focused the company's policies and then energetically carried them out. What was already the world's most ubiquitous product gained new momentum, with sales overseas virtually exploding.

一时之间,我的观感与眼界大开,在1970年代一度委靡不振之后,可口可乐在1981年新任总裁古崔塔的带领下,焕然一新,古崔塔加上Don Keough(曾经是我在奥玛哈的对街邻居),经过思考并厘清公司的政策后,切实地加以执行,使得本来就已是全世界最独一无二的产品又平添新动力,尤其是来自海外的营收更呈现爆炸性的成长。

Through a truly rare blend of marketing and financial skills, Roberto has maximized both the growth of his product and the rewards that this growth brings to shareholders. Normally, the CEO of a consumer products company, drawing on his natural inclinations or experience, will cause either marketing or finance to dominate the business at the expense of the other discipline. With Roberto, the mesh of marketing and finance is perfect and the result is a shareholder's dream.

利用其行销与财务方面的两把利刃,古崔塔将可口可乐产品的成长与股东的利益极大化,通常一家消费性商品的CEO,基于个人过去的经验与个性,会偏向公司的行销或财务任何一边,但是古崔塔却能够将两者调和到极致的境界,这样的结果实在是股东们前世修来的好福气。

Of course, we should have started buying Coke much earlier, soon after Roberto and Don began running things. In fact, if I had been thinking straight I would have persuaded my grandfather to sell the grocery store back in 1936 and put all of the proceeds into Coca-Cola stock. I've learned my lesson: My response time to the next glaringly attractive idea will be slashed to well under 50 years.

当然我们应该在古崔塔与Don开始接掌公司时,就早点买进该公司的股票,事实上,要是我有足够的远见,早在1936年我就应该说服我爷爷干脆卖掉杂货店,然后将钱全部用来买进可口可乐的股票,这次我终于学到了教训,不过照这种情况看来,距离下一次我灵光一现的时间,可能要再等上个50年以上吧!

As I mentioned earlier, the yearend prices of our major investees were much higher relative to their intrinsic values than theretofore. While those prices may not yet cause nosebleeds, they are clearly vulnerable to a general market decline. A drop in their prices would not disturb us at all - it might in fact work to our eventual benefit - but it would cause at least a one-year reduction in Berkshire's net worth. We think such a reduction is almost certain in at least one of the next three years. Indeed, it would take only about a 10% year-to-year decline in the aggregate value of our portfolio investments to send Berkshire's net worth down.

就像是我上次所提到的,相较于过去,我们这些被投资公司的股价已高于其实质价值,虽然目前以这种价位不会造成我们流鼻血,但难免会受到大盘波动的影响,当然股价下挫一点都不会造成我们的困扰,甚至反而对我们有利,但不可避免地可能会造成Berkshire年度净值的减少,只要在未来的两、三年间,我们的投资组合市值平均每年减少10%,就有可能会发生这种状况。

We continue to be blessed with extraordinary managers at our portfolio companies. They are high-grade, talented, and shareholder-oriented. The exceptional results we have achieved while investing with them accurately reflect their exceptional personal qualities.

我们持续受惠于这些被投资公司经理人,他们高品格、能力佳且设身处地为股东着想,我们能够有这么好的投资绩效,可以说是完全仰赖这些经理人不凡的人格特质。

o We told you last year that we expected to do little in arbitrage during 1989, and that's the way it turned out. Arbitrage positions are a substitute for short-term cash equivalents, and during part of the year we held relatively low levels of cash. In the rest of the year we had a fairly good-sized cash position and even so chose not to engage in arbitrage. The main reason was corporate transactions that made no economic sense to us; arbitraging such deals comes too close to playing the greater-fool game. (As Wall Streeter Ray DeVoe says: "Fools rush in where angels fear to trade.") We will engage in arbitrage from time to time - sometimes on a large scale - but only when we like the odds.

去年我曾向各位报告今年可能会减少在套利投资方面的活动,结果正是如此,套利投资是短期资金的替代去处,有时我们手头上没有太多的现金,就算是有我们也宁愿选择不参与套利,主要的原因是因为最近这些企业活动实在是没有太大的经济意义,从事这类的套利交易就好象是在比谁比较笨,华尔街人士Ray DeVoe所说天使回避但傻瓜趋之若骛,我们三不五时会从事大型的套利交易,但只有当我们觉得胜算颇大时,才会考虑进场。

o Leaving aside the three convertible preferreds discussed in the next section, we substantially reduced our holdings in both medium- and long-term fixed-income securities. In the long-terms, just about our only holdings have been Washington Public Power Supply Systems (WPPSS) bonds carrying coupons ranging from low to high. During the year we sold a number of the low-coupon issues, which we originally bought at very large discounts. Many of these issues had approximately doubled in price since we purchased them and in addition had paid us 15%-17% annually, tax-free. Our prices upon sale were only slightly cheaper than typical high-grade tax-exempts then commanded. We have kept all of our high-coupon WPPSS issues. Some have been called for redemption in 1991 and 1992, and we expect the rest to be called in the early to mid-1990s.

除了后面会提到的三项可转换特别股投资之外,我们大幅减少在中长期的固定收益债券部位,尤其是长期部份,大概就只剩下华盛顿公用电力系统债券,去年我们处分了部份当初以相当低折价买进的低收益债券,处分价格与一般信用评等佳的债券差不多,是原始投资成本的一倍,外加每年15%到17%的免税利息,至于高收益的债券则予以保留,有些即将在1991年或1992年到期,剩下的则会在1990年中期到期赎回。

We also sold many of our medium-term tax-exempt bonds during the year. When we bought these bonds we said we would be happy to sell them - regardless of whether they were higher or lower than at our time of purchase - if something we liked better came along. Something did - and concurrently we unloaded most of these issues at modest gains. Overall, our 1989 profit from the sale of tax-exempt bonds was about $51 million pre-tax.

同时我们也卖了不少中期的免税债券,当初买下这些债券时就曾说过,只要时机成熟找到更好的投资标的,我们会很高兴地把他们给处分掉,不管届时的价格是高或是低于我们的投资成本,如今时机确实成熟了,所以我们便将大部分的债券出清,所得的报酬还算不错,总结下来我们1989年从出售免税债券所获得的税前收益大概在5,100万左右。

The proceeds from our bond sales, along with our excess cash at the beginning of the year and that generated later through earnings, went into the purchase of three convertible preferred stocks. In the first transaction, which took place in July, we purchased $600 million of The Gillette Co. preferred with an 8 3/4% dividend, a mandatory redemption in ten years, and the right to convert into common at $50 per share. We next purchased $358 million of USAir Group, Inc. preferred stock with mandatory redemption in ten years, a dividend of 9 1/4%, and the right to convert into common at $60 per share. Finally, late in the year we purchased $300 million of Champion International Corp. preferred with mandatory redemption in ten years, a 9 1/4% dividend, and the right to convert into common at $38 per share.

我们将出售债券所得的收入连同期初帐上的现金与年中所赚取的盈余,通通买进三种可转换特别股,第一种是在7月我们投资6亿美金在吉列刮胡刀年利率8又3/4%十年强制赎回的可转换特别股,转换价格订为50美元;之后我们又花了3.58亿美金投资美国航空年利率9又1/4%十年强制赎回的可转换特别股,转换价格订为60美元;最后我们在年底又以3亿美金投资冠军企业年利率9又1/4%十年强制赎回的可转换特别股,转换价格订为38美元。

Unlike standard convertible preferred stocks, the issues we own are either non-salable or non-convertible for considerable periods of time and there is consequently no way we can gain from short-term price blips in the common stock. I have gone on the board of Gillette, but I am not on the board of USAir or Champion. (I thoroughly enjoy the boards I am on, but can't handle any more.)

不像一般的可转换特别股,这次我们所拥有的在限定时间内不得出售或转换的,所以短期间我们要靠普通股反转而获利的机会不大,我并且已经加入吉列的董事会,至于美国航空或是Champion公司则没有,(我很喜欢现有加入的董事会,但可是由于分身乏术可能无法再加入其它公司的董事会)。

Gillette's business is very much the kind we like. Charlie and I think we understand the company's economics and therefore believe we can make a reasonably intelligent guess about its future. (If you haven't tried Gillette's new Sensor razor, go right out and get one.) However, we have no ability to forecast the economics of the investment banking business (in which we have a position through our 1987 purchase of Salomon convertible preferred), the airline industry, or the paper industry. This does not mean that we predict a negative future for these industries: we're agnostics, not atheists. Our lack of strong convictions about these businesses, however, means that we must structure our investments in them differently from what we do when we invest in a business appearing to have splendid economic characteristics.

吉列这家公司与我们喜爱的类型非常相近,查理跟我都熟悉这个产业的环境,因此我们相信可以对这家公司的未来做一个合理的预估,(若是没有试过吉列新的感应式刮胡刀,赶紧去买一个来试试!),但是我们就没法子来预测投资银行业、航空业或是造纸业的未来前景,(我们在1987年买下所罗门公司的可转换债券) ,当然这并不表示他们的未来就是个负数,基本上我们是不可知论者,而不是无神论者。所以由于我们在这些产业上缺乏强而有力的论点支持我们,因此我们在这些产业上所采的投资方式就必须与那些显而易见的好公司好产业有所不同。

In one major respect, however, these purchases are not different: We only want to link up with people whom we like, admire, and trust. John Gutfreund at Salomon, Colman Mockler, Jr. at Gillette, Ed Colodny at USAir, and Andy Sigler at Champion meet this test in spades.

不过在另一方面,有一点还是很重要,我们只跟我们喜欢、欣赏且信任的人打交道,像是所罗门的John Gutfreund、吉列的Colman Mockler二世、美国航空的Ed Colodny与Champion企业的Andy Sigler都算是符合我们的标准。

They in turn have demonstrated some confidence in us, insisting in each case that our preferreds have unrestricted voting rights on a fully-converted basis, an arrangement that is far from standard in corporate finance. In effect they are trusting us to be intelligent owners, thinking about tomorrow instead of today, just as we are trusting them to be intelligent managers, thinking about tomorrow as well as today.

同时他们对我们也相当的信任,坚持给我们无限制的转换权利,这在一般美国大企业融资案里头并不多见,事实上他们相信我们是聪明的老板,看的是未来而不是现在,就像我们相信他们是聪明的经理人一样,不但会看未来同时也会顾及现在。

The preferred-stock structures we have negotiated will provide a mediocre return for us if industry economics hinder the performance of our investees, but will produce reasonably attractive results for us if they can earn a return comparable to that of American industry in general. We believe that Gillette, under Colman's management, will far exceed that return and believe that John, Ed, and Andy will reach it unless industry conditions are harsh.

这种可转换特别股的投资方式可以确保即便是我们的被投资公司面临产业前景不佳的环境时,仍能确保我们可以得到稳定的收益,同时若被投资公司表现不错时,我们又可以获得比投资一般美国企业更好的报酬,我们相信吉列在Colman的领导之下,一定会有不错的表现,另外John与Andy即使是面临产业不佳的前景,应该也不会让我们失望。

Under almost any conditions, we expect these preferreds to return us our money plus dividends. If that is all we get, though, the result will be disappointing, because we will have given up flexibility and consequently will have missed some significant opportunities that are bound to present themselves during the decade. Under that scenario, we will have obtained only a preferred-stock yield during a period when the typical preferred stock will have held no appeal for us whatsoever. The only way Berkshire can achieve satisfactory results from its four preferred issues is to have the common stocks of the investee companies do well.

不管在任何情况之下,我们预期这些可转换特别股都可以让我们收回本金加上股利无虞,然而若是我们真的只能收回这些,那么这样的结果毋宁是相当令我们失望的,因为我们必须被迫牺牲流动性,这友可能让我们在往后的十年内错失更好的投资机会,在这种情况下,我们就只能获得一般特别股所能获得的利益,而后者却是我们根本就不会想要去投资的,所以唯一对Berkshire最有益处的是我们的被投资公司本身的普通股也能有优异的表现。

Good management and at least tolerable industry conditions will be needed if that is to happen. But we believe Berkshire's investment will also help and that the other shareholders of each investee will profit over the years ahead from our preferred-stock purchase. The help will come from the fact that each company now has a major, stable, and interested shareholder whose Chairman and Vice Chairman have, through Berkshire's investments, indirectly committed a very large amount of their own money to these undertakings. In dealing with our investees, Charlie and I will be supportive, analytical, and objective. We recognize that we are working with experienced CEOs who are very much in command of their own businesses but who nevertheless, at certain moments, appreciate the chance to test their thinking on someone without ties to their industry or to decisions of the past.

这需要靠好的经营团队再加上可以忍受的产业环境,不过我们相信Berkshire本身对这四家公司的资金挹注,也能够对这些公司与其股东的长远利益有所帮助,这是由于他们可以确信现在这些公司的背后有一个稳定又关心公司的大股东在默默地支持他们,再与我们被投资公司相处时,我们通常会采取支持、客观并给予分析建议的态度,我们了解这些公司的CEO对于其所处的产业都相当的清楚,但我想他们应该有会很珍惜我们这些与产业背景完全不相关的客观人士所给他们的经验交流。

As a group, these convertible preferreds will not produce the returns we can achieve when we find a business with wonderful economic prospects that is unappreciated by the market. Nor will the returns be as attractive as those produced when we make our favorite form of capital deployment, the acquisition of 80% or more of a fine business with a fine management. But both opportunities are rare, particularly in a size befitting our present and anticipated resources.

这些可转换特别股的报酬当然比不上那些具有经济优势却还没被市场发现的好股票,或许也比不上那些我们可以买下80%以上股权的优良企业购并案,但大家要知道后面这两种投资机会相当的稀少,实在是可遇不可求,尤其是以我们现在的资金规模,实在是很难找的到适合的投资标的。

In summation, Charlie and I feel that our preferred stock investments should produce returns moderately above those achieved by most fixed-income portfolios and that we can play a minor but enjoyable and constructive role in the investee

companies.

总而言之,查理跟我认为这类的可转换特别股投资应该可以让我们获得比一般固定收益债券更好的投资利益,同时我们也可以在这些被投资公司扮演好具建设性的少数关键角色。

Zero-Coupon Securities

零息债券

In September, Berkshire issued $902.6 million principal amount of Zero-Coupon Convertible Subordinated Debentures, which are now listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Salomon Brothers handled the underwriting in superb fashion, providing us helpful advice and a flawless execution.

去年九月,Berkshire发行了9亿美元的零息可转换次顺位债券,目前并已在纽约证券交易所挂牌交易,由所罗门公司负责本次的债券承销工作,提供了我们宝贵的建议与完美无缺的执行结果。

Most bonds, of course, require regular payments of interest, usually semi-annually. A zero-coupon bond, conversely, requires no current interest payments; instead, the investor receives his yield by purchasing the security at a significant discount from maturity value. The effective interest rate is determined by the original issue price, the maturity value, and the amount of time between issuance and maturity.

大部分的债券当然需要按时支付利息,通常是每半年一次,但是零息债券却不须要马上支付利息,而是由投资人在以相当大的折价幅度在取得债券时预先扣除,实质的利率则取决于发行的债券价格、到期面值与发行时间的长短而定。

In our case, the bonds were issued at 44.314% of maturity value and are due in 15 years. For investors purchasing the bonds, that is the mathematical equivalent of a 5.5% current payment compounded semi-annually. Because we received only 44.31 cents on the dollar, our proceeds from this offering were $400 million (less about $9.5 million of offering expenses).

以我们这次发行的债券来说,发行价是面额的44.314%,十五年到期,对于买下这次债券的投资人,约可获得相当于5.5%的年报酬率,因为我们只拿到44.31每分,所以这次扣除950万美元的发行费用,我们实得的款项是4亿美元。

The bonds were issued in denominations of $10,000 and each bond is convertible into .4515 shares of Berkshire Hathaway. Because a $10,000 bond cost $4,431, this means that the conversion price was $9,815 per Berkshire share, a 15% premium to the market price then existing. Berkshire can call the bonds at any time after September 28, 1992 at their accreted value (the original issue price plus 5.5% compounded semi-annually) and on two specified days, September 28 of 1994 and 1999, the bondholders can require Berkshire to buy the securities at their accreted value.

这次发行的债券面额是10,000美元,每张债券可以申请转换为0.4515股的Berkshire股份,因为每张债券的发行价大约是4,431美元,所以代表转换为Berkshire的价格大概是9,815美元,约为现在市价15%的溢价,同时Berkshire有权在1992年9月28日以后加计利息(5.5%的年利率)赎回这些债券,至于债券持有人也有权在1994年与1999年的9月28日要求公司加计利息买回其所持有的债券。

For tax purposes, Berkshire is entitled to deduct the 5.5% interest accrual each year, even though we make no payments to the bondholders. Thus the net effect to us, resulting from the reduced taxes, is positive cash flow. That is a very significant benefit. Some unknowable variables prevent us from calculating our exact effective rate of interest, but under all circumstances it will be well below 5.5%. There is meanwhile a symmetry to the tax law: Any taxable holder of the bonds must pay tax each year on the 5.5% interest, even though he receives no cash.

就税负的观点而言,虽然没有马上支付利息,但Berkshire每年仍可享受5.5%利息支出的所得税扣抵,由于减少了税负支出,所以就现金流量的角度而言,我们每年还有现金净流入,这是一项不错的好处,当然一些不可知的变处,使我们无法确定这次发行真正的资金成本,但不管怎样,应该都低于5.5%,而相对的债券持有人每年还是要支付5.5%的利息所得税,虽然他们根本没有收到任何的现金利息收入。

Neither our bonds nor those of certain other companies that issued similar bonds last year (notably Loews and Motorola) resemble the great bulk of zero-coupon bonds that have been issued in recent years. Of these, Charlie and I have been, and will continue to be, outspoken critics. As I will later explain, such bonds have often been used in the most deceptive of ways and with deadly consequences to investors. But before we tackle that subject, let's travel back to Eden, to a time when the apple had not yet been bitten.

去年我们与其它公司所发行的类似债券(尤其是Loews与摩托罗拉公司),与这几年盛行的零息债券有相当大的差异,对于后者,查理跟我一直有相当的意见,后面我会再详加说明,我们认为这些债券隐藏着欺骗行为,对买下他们的投资人有相当不利的影响,不过在谈论这个话题之前,让我们回溯时光到亚当还未引诱夏娃啃下苹果之前的时代。

If you're my age you bought your first zero-coupon bonds during World War II, by purchasing the famous Series E U. S. Savings Bond, the most widely-sold bond issue in history. (After the war, these bonds were held by one out of two U. S. households.) Nobody, of course, called the Series E a zero-coupon bond, a term in fact that I doubt had been invented. But that's precisely what the Series E was.

如果你像我这样的年纪曾在二次世界大战期间第一次买进最有名的E系列美国储蓄零息债券,(这种广为流传的债券几乎每两个家庭最会有人持有),当然在当时没有人会把它当作是零息债券的一种,因为这名词根本就还未出现,但基本上它就是一种零息债券。

These bonds came in denominations as small as $18.75. That amount purchased a $25 obligation of the United States government due in 10 years, terms that gave the buyer a compounded annual return of 2.9%. At the time, this was an attractive offer: the 2.9% rate was higher than that generally available on Government bonds and the holder faced no market-fluctuation risk, since he could at any time cash in his bonds with only a minor reduction in interest.

这种债券的面额最小的只有18.75美元,买下10年后美国政府必须偿还25美元,投资人大概可以获得2.9%的年投资报酬率,在当时这是相当不错的一项投资,2.9%的年利率远高于普通的政府债券利率,且持有人不必担心利率波动的风险,而且他可以随时予以变现,利息不会被打折太多。

A second form of zero-coupon U. S. Treasury issue, also benign and useful, surfaced in the last decade. One problem with a normal bond is that even though it pays a given interest rate - say 10% - the holder cannot be assured that a compounded 10% return will be realized. For that rate to materialize, each semi-annual coupon must be reinvested at 10% as it is received. If current interest rates are, say, only 6% or 7% when these coupons come due, the holder will be unable to compound his money over the life of the bond at the advertised rate. For pension funds or other investors with long-term liabilities, "reinvestment risk" of this type can be a serious problem. Savings Bonds might have solved it, except that they are issued only to individuals and are unavailable in large denominations. What big buyers needed was huge quantities of "Savings Bond Equivalents."

第二种形式的美国国库零息债券出现在十几年前,也相当的不错,一般的债券有一个很大的问题,那就是虽然它的票面是10%,但持有人却不一定能够保证就能得到10%的报酬率,因为要能获得10%的话就必须所收到的10%利息收入也能再运用投资也能得到10%以上才行,若是所得的利息之后只能得到6%或7%的报酬,则最后结算的报酬率可能没有办法达到10%的预定利率,这对于退休基金或是其它具有长期负债的投资者来说,再投资所可能遇到的风险可能是一个很严重的问题,储蓄债券则可以解决这样的问题,只可惜它只能发行给个人而且面额都不大,对于大买家来说,它们需要的是类似这种储蓄债券的替代品。
Enter some ingenious and, in this case, highly useful investment bankers (led, I'm happy to say, by Salomon Brothers). They created the instrument desired by "stripping" the semi-annual coupons from standard Government issues. Each coupon, once detached, takes on the essential character of a Savings Bond since it represents a single sum due sometime in the future. For example, if you strip the 40 semi-annual coupons from a U. S. Government Bond due in the year 2010, you will have 40 zero-coupon bonds, with maturities from six months to 20 years, each of which can then be bundled with other coupons of like maturity and marketed. If current interest rates are, say, 10% for all maturities, the six-month issue will sell for 95.24% of maturity value and the 20-year issue will sell for 14.20%. The purchaser of any given maturity is thus guaranteed a compounded rate of 10% for his entire holding period. Stripping of government bonds has occurred on a large scale in recent years, as long-term investors, ranging from pension funds to individual IRA accounts, recognized these high-grade, zero-coupon issues to be well suited to their needs.

这时创意十足的银行家就适时出现了,(我很高兴的向各位报告那就是所罗门兄弟公司),它们从标准的政府债券中,分拆出大家所想要的零息债券,每一张债券都跟储蓄债券一样,在未来的某一天到期后可以拿回完整的一笔钱,举例来说如果你可以将20年期每半年付息的债券,分拆成40张到期日分别为半年到20年不等的零息债券,之后再将到期日相同的债券并起来对外出售,假设现行的殖利率为10%,半年期的价格大概是95.24%,20年期的则只有14.20%,如此一来所有购买这种债券的投资者就可以明确的确保它可以获得的报酬率,分拆债券这几年因符合长期的退休基金与个人的IRA帐户投资者需求,广受欢迎而大量流行。

But as happens in Wall Street all too often, what the wise do in the beginning, fools do in the end. In the last few years zero-coupon bonds (and their functional equivalent, pay-in-kind bonds, which distribute additional PIK bonds semi-annually as interest instead of paying cash) have been issued in enormous quantities by ever-junkier credits. To these issuers, zero (or PIK) bonds offer one overwhelming advantage: It is impossible to default on a promise to pay nothing. Indeed, if LDC governments had issued no debt in the 1970's other than long-term zero-coupon obligations, they would now have a spotless record as debtors.

但就像是华尔街经常会发生的,不管什么好东西到最后都会变质,最近几年来零息债券(以及功能类似的pay-in-kind债券,只发放PIK债券取代现金),有一大部份是垃圾债券等级,对这些发行公司来说,零息债券有一个很大的好处,因为在发行后直到到期日前根本就不必付出任何资金所以根本就不有无法偿付的情况,事实上,LDC政府在1970年后除了长期零息债券之外就没有发行过其它债券,所以就一个债务人来说,它们到现在还拥有完美无暇的记录。

This principle at work - that you need not default for a long time if you solemnly promise to pay nothing for a long time - has not been lost on promoters and investment bankers seeking to finance ever-shakier deals. But its acceptance by lenders took a while: When the leveraged buy-out craze began some years back, purchasers could borrow only on a reasonably sound basis, in which conservatively-estimated free cash flow - that is, operating earnings plus depreciation and amortization less normalized capital expenditures - was adequate to cover both interest and modest reductions in debt.

这原则实在是管用,你大可以正经八百的说你一定不会还不出钱,原因是因为你有好长一段时间可以不必支付一毛钱,直到支持者与投资银行家再发明出更刺激的融资方式之前,不过债权人也要花好长一段时间才能支持这种做法,当融资购并热开始风行的几年之前,投资者只能借到一点钱,因为债权人会保守地估计其未来的现金流量,亦即营业收益加计折旧与摊销再扣除资本支出,必须要能够确保未来的利息支出与本金的支付。

Later, as the adrenalin of deal-makers surged, businesses began to be purchased at prices so high that all free cash flow necessarily had to be allocated to the payment of interest. That left nothing for the paydown of debt. In effect, a Scarlett O'Hara "I'll think about it tomorrow" position in respect to principal payments was taken by borrowers and accepted by a new breed of lender, the buyer of original-issue junk bonds. Debt now became something to be refinanced rather than repaid. The change brings to mind a New Yorker cartoon in which the grateful borrower rises to shake the hand of the bank's lending officer and gushes: "I don't know how I'll ever repay you."

之后随着肾上腺素升高,买价持续飙高使得所有的预估现金流量都必须被分配用来支付利息,至于本金的部份根本就不在预计偿付范围之内,接着贷款者对于本金偿还的态度就变得像乱世佳人中的郝思佳一样,「管他的,明天再说吧!」,而更离谱的是偏偏就有借钱者愿意吃这一套,那就是专门买垃圾债券的投资者,债务从此以后只要再融资即可,根本就不用考虑要偿还,这种心态的转变在纽约客卡通中描写的罪贴切,一个贷款人痛哭零涕地握着银行员的手说到,「我实在不知道该如何”偿还”你对我的恩情。」

Soon borrowers found even the new, lax standards intolerably binding. To induce lenders to finance even sillier transactions, they introduced an abomination, EBDIT - Earnings Before Depreciation, Interest and Taxes - as the test of a company's ability to pay interest. Using this sawed-off yardstick, the borrower ignored depreciation as an expense on the theory that it did not require a current cash outlay.

很快的其它借款人又找到更新、更宽松的约束方式,为了拐骗金主借钱来从事更离谱的交易,这群人又引进了一个新名词叫做扣除折旧、利息与税负前的盈余EBDIT,来衡量一家公司偿债的能力,利用这种较低的标准,借款人故意忽略了折旧也是一种费用,虽然它不会马上有现金的支出。

Such an attitude is clearly delusional. At 95% of American businesses, capital expenditures that over time roughly approximate depreciation are a necessity and are every bit as real an expense as labor or utility costs. Even a high school dropout knows that to finance a car he must have income that covers not only interest and operating expenses, but also realistically-calculated depreciation. He would be laughed out of the bank if he started talking about EBDIT.

这样的态度摆明了就是掩耳盗铃,95%的美国企业,长期而言其资本支出大概与平时提列的累积折旧费用相当,所花的每一分钱都与日常的劳工薪资或水电成本一样实在,即使是中学的中辍生也知道养一台车子不只是要负担利息与日常油钱保养费用而已,还必须精确地考量到每月实际摊销的折旧,若是他跑到银行摆出EBDIT这一套说法,保证一下子就会被轰出来。

Capital outlays at a business can be skipped, of course, in any given month, just as a human can skip a day or even a week of eating. But if the skipping becomes routine and is not made up, the body weakens and eventually dies. Furthermore, a start-and-stop feeding policy will over time produce a less healthy organism, human or corporate, than that produced by a steady diet. As businessmen, Charlie and I relish having competitors who are unable to fund capital expenditures.

在企业资本支出当然可以暂时不去考虑,就像是一个人可以一天或甚至一个礼拜不吃东西,但若是这种情况便做是一种坏习惯的话,身体很快就会发生不适的状况,甚至有死亡的危险,更甚者,有一餐没一餐的做法比起稳定的进食习惯,更可能使得一个健康的人身体机能变差,不管是人体或是企业都是如此,身为一个生意人,查理跟我对于竞争对手可能没有资金进行资本支出来感到欣喜。

You might think that waving away a major expense such as depreciation in an attempt to make a terrible deal look like a good one hits the limits of Wall Street's ingenuity. If so, you haven't been paying attention during the past few years. Promoters needed to find a way to justify even pricier acquisitions. Otherwise, they risked - heaven forbid! - losing deals to other promoters with more "imagination."

或许你会认为排除一项主要的费用诸如折旧等使得原本一桩很烂的交易变成不错的交易,是华尔街聪明才智极致的表现,,那你可能是完全没有注意到华尔街过去几年的发展,支持者必须再找到一个更有看头的做法,来合理解释价格更离谱的购并案,不然的话,他们就必须冒犯最严重的天条-被其它更有”创意”的支持者把生意抢走。

So, stepping through the Looking Glass, promoters and their investment bankers proclaimed that EBDIT should now be measured against cash interest only, which meant that interest accruing on zero-coupon or PIK bonds could be ignored when the financial feasibility of a transaction was being assessed. This approach not only relegated depreciation expense to the let's-ignore-it corner, but gave similar treatment to what was usually a significant portion of interest expense. To their shame, many professional investment managers went along with this nonsense, though they usually were careful to do so only with clients' money, not their own. (Calling these managers "professionals" is actually too kind; they should be designated "promotees.")

所以穿过外面的那道玻璃,支持者与其投资银行宣称EBDIT应该可以只跟要付的利息做比较就好,意思是说在评估一项投资案的时候,那些记帐不须马上支付的利息根本就可以不必纳入考量,这样的方式不但是把折旧丢到没人注意的角落边,还将大部分的利息费用用同样的方式对待,可耻的是,许多专业投资银行家竟然昧着良心附和,反正只要确定这是客户而不是他们自己的钱就好,(称呼这群人为专业人士实在是太恭维他们了,他们应该被归类为抬轿者)。

Under this new standard, a business earning, say, $100 million pre-tax and having debt on which $90 million of interest must be paid currently, might use a zero-coupon or PIK issue to incur another $60 million of annual interest that would accrue and compound but not come due for some years. The rate on these issues would typically be very high, which means that the situation in year 2 might be $90 million cash interest plus $69 million accrued interest, and so on as the compounding proceeds. Such high-rate reborrowing schemes, which a few years ago were appropriately confined to the waterfront, soon became models of modern finance at virtually all major investment banking houses.

在这种新的标准之下,一家公司假设税前有1亿美元的获利,同时最近一年有9千万的利息支出,大可以运用零息债券或是PIK债券来额外负担6千万只要记帐却不须马上支付利息与本金,而这种债券的利率通常非常高,到了第二年,公司可能要承担9千万的付现息与6,900万的记帐息,之后随着复利记帐息持续增加,而这种高利率的融资计画,在刚开始几年还能获得有效控制,但不久之后就变成所有大型投资银行必备推荐给客户的标准融资工具。

When they make these offerings, investment bankers display their humorous side: They dispense income and balance sheet projections extending five or more years into the future for companies they barely had heard of a few months earlier. If you are shown such schedules, I suggest that you join in the fun: Ask the investment banker for the one-year budgets that his own firm prepared as the last few years began and then compare these with what actually happened.

当他们推出这样的新案子时,投资银行展现他们幽默的一面,他们将损益表与资产负债表的预估展延为五年或甚至更长的一段期间,虽然在几个月之前,他们可能连这家公司的名字都没听过,我想如果你那天碰到这种预估表,我建议你可以参与这样的游戏:跟这位投资银行家要一份他们自己公司的过去几年的年度预算,然后跟他们实际的结果必较一下,你就知道是什么回事了。

Some time ago Ken Galbraith, in his witty and insightful The Great Crash, coined a new economic term: "the bezzle," defined as the current amount of undiscovered embezzlement. This financial creature has a magical quality: The embezzlers are richer by the amount of the bezzle, while the embezzlees do not yet feel poorer.

许久以前Ken Galbraith在他的名著「大恐慌」中,发明了一个新的经济名词-Bezzle,用来代表现有未被发现的贪污舞弊,这种财经现象有一个很奇特的特质,那就是贪污舞弊者因为贪污舞弊而发大财,但问题是受害者却一点也没有被剥夺变穷的感觉。

Professor Galbraith astutely pointed out that this sum should be added to the National Wealth so that we might know the Psychic National Wealth. Logically, a society that wanted to feel enormously prosperous would both encourage its citizens to embezzle and try not to detect the crime. By this means, "wealth" would balloon though not an erg of productive work had been done.

Galbraith教授真知卓见地点出大家应该把这个数字统计一下,加进国民财富当中,从而我们可以知道心理上的国民财富为多少,理论上一个社会若想要觉得自己经济繁荣发展就应该多多鼓励人民去贪污舞弊,并试着不要去揭发它,透过这种方式,一个国家的财富可以大幅地增长,虽然实际上它什么有生产力的事都没做。

The satirical nonsense of the bezzle is dwarfed by the real-world nonsense of the zero-coupon bond. With zeros, one party to a contract can experience "income" without his opposite experiencing the pain of expenditure. In our illustration, a company capable of earning only $100 million dollars annually - and therefore capable of paying only that much in interest - magically creates "earnings" for bondholders of $150 million. As long as major investors willingly don their Peter Pan wings and repeatedly say "I believe," there is no limit to how much "income" can be created by the zero-coupon bond.

但是这种不合理的贪污舞弊,在现实社会中却被零息债券给比了下去,利用这些”零”一家公司可以大大方方靠着这纸签约,利用借款享受所带来的收入,但另外一方面却不知承担支付支出的痛苦,以我们先前提到的例子,一家每年可以赚1亿美元的公司,利用这种方法,在债券投资人的面前,却可以把膨胀到1亿5,000万美元,只要投资人愿意充当彼得潘,不断地说「我相信你」,只要你愿意零息债券所创造的收入是没有上限的。

Wall Street welcomed this invention with the enthusiasm less-enlightened folk might reserve for the wheel or the plow. Here, finally, was an instrument that would let the Street make deals at prices no longer limited by actual earning power. The result, obviously, would be more transactions: Silly prices will always attract sellers. And, as Jesse Unruh might have put it, transactions are the mother's milk of finance.

华尔街以热情拥抱这项新的发明,后知后觉的人可能就准备等着卷铺盖走路,终于在这里大家找到一个可以不必理会公司实际获利能力的融资方法,结果很明显,当然就会有更多的生意上门,离谱的价格一定有卖家愿意出,就像Jesse Unruh可能会说的一句话,交易就像是金融世界的母奶。

The zero-coupon or PIK bond possesses one additional attraction for the promoter and investment banker, which is that the time elapsing between folly and failure can be stretched out. This is no small benefit. If the period before all costs must be faced is long, promoters can create a string of foolish deals - and take in lots of fees - before any chickens come home to roost from their earlier ventures.

此外零息与PIK债券还有一项特点使得支持者与银行家更愿意推行,就是东窗事发的时间可以再延长,这点可是相当的重要,如果交易所衍生的后果要很长一段时间才会浮现,那么支持者就可以在这段期间做更多的交易,从中赚取更多的手续费,直到事件东窗事发之前。

But in the end, alchemy, whether it is metallurgical or financial, fails. A base business can not be transformed into a golden business by tricks of accounting or capital structure. The man claiming to be a financial alchemist may become rich. But gullible investors rather than business achievements will usually be the source of his wealth.

不过到最后,炼金术,不管是冶金的或是财务上的,终究是会落空,一个烂公司不可能只靠着会计或财务技巧而摇身一变成为好公司,那个宣称会炼金术的财务专业人士或许会发大财,但他靠的却是容易上当的投资人而不是企业经营。

Whatever their weaknesses, we should add, many zero-coupon and PIK bonds will not default. We have in fact owned some and may buy more if their market becomes sufficiently distressed. (We've not, however, even considered buying a new issue from a weak credit.) No financial instrument is evil per se; it's just that some variations have far more potential for mischief than others.

不过这些债券有多少缺点,但我们却必须承认许多零息与PIK债券应该不会还不出钱来,事实上我们自己也投资了一些,而且若是债券市场情况再变差一点,我们可能还会买的更多,(当然我们从来就不会考虑去买那些新发行债信又差的垃圾债券),就本质而言,没有一项财务工具是不对的,只是有一些含有相当高程度的可能伤害在里面。

The blue ribbon for mischief-making should go to the zero-coupon issuer unable to make its interest payments on a current basis. Our advice: Whenever an investment banker starts talking about EBDIT - or whenever someone creates a capital structure that does not allow all interest, both payable and accrued, to be comfortably met out of current cash flow net of ample capital expenditures - zip up your wallet. Turn the tables by suggesting that the promoter and his high-priced entourage accept zero-coupon fees, deferring their take until the zero-coupon bonds have been paid in full. See then how much enthusiasm for the deal endures.

所有的罪过应该归咎于债券发行者没有办法在现在就立即支付利息,我们的建议是当任何投资银行家在开始提到EBDIT之前,或是任何人在对你提议一项可以不必支付任何利息的金融工具时,为了你自己的现金流量着想,赶快把你的荷包看紧,换个角度建议这些推销者是否也能接受等这些零息债券真正偿还本金之后,再缴交手续费,看看这些人的热情还能支撑多久。

Our comments about investment bankers may seem harsh. But Charlie and I - in our hopelessly old-fashioned way - believe that they should perform a gatekeeping role, guarding investors against the promoter's propensity to indulge in excess. Promoters, after all, have throughout time exercised the same judgment and restraint in accepting money that alcoholics have exercised in accepting liquor. At a minimum, therefore, the banker's conduct should rise to that of a responsible bartender who, when necessary, refuses the profit from the next drink to avoid sending a drunk out on the highway. In recent years, unfortunately, many leading investment firms have found bartender morality to be an intolerably restrictive standard. Lately, those who have traveled the high road in Wall Street have not encountered heavy traffic.

我们对于这些投资银行家的批判或许是激烈了一点,但查理跟我以我们这种无可救药的保守作风,相信他们确实应该要做好把关的工作,保护投资人免于这些推销者过度的引诱,因为推销者对于佣金的饥渴就像是酗酒者对于酒精的沉溺一样,最低限度,投资银行家也要肩负起吧台调酒师的角色,必要的时候,就算少赚一杯酒钱,也要劝客户少喝一点,不幸的是最近几年来,许多大型的投资银行都认为这样的基本道德规范是一项很严重的限制,因为其它很多大胆的业者,可以更自由的大行其道。

One distressing footnote: The cost of the zero-coupon folly will not be borne solely by the direct participants. Certain savings and loan associations were heavy buyers of such bonds, using cash that came from FSLIC-insured deposits. Straining to show splendid earnings, these buyers recorded - but did not receive - ultra-high interest income on these issues. Many of these associations are now in major trouble. Had their loans to shaky credits worked, the owners of the associations would have pocketed the profits. In the many cases in which the loans will fail, the taxpayer will pick up the bill. To paraphrase Jackie Mason, at these associations it was the managers who should have been wearing the ski masks.

最后还有一个令人不平的附带说明,零息债券的代价并不只由直接参与者自己承担而已,一些储贷机构由于是这些垃圾债券的大买家,利用由联邦政府所保险的人民储蓄存款来投资,为了尽量美化帐面盈余数字,这些单位将这些即使还没有收到的超高利息收入全部认列,许多储贷机构现在却因此面临严重的问题,若是他们那些债信不佳的债务人付出本金,当然状况就可以顺利解决,但问题是通常他们都付不出本金,到最后还是必须由整体纳税义务人来买单,套句Jackie Mason的话,应该是由这些储贷机构的经理人来戴区棍球面罩。

Mistakes of the First Twenty-five Years (A Condensed Version)

头25年所犯的错误(浓缩版)

To quote Robert Benchley, "Having a dog teaches a boy fidelity, perseverance, and to turn around three times before lying down." Such are the shortcomings of experience. Nevertheless, it's a good idea to review past mistakes before committing new ones. So let's take a quick look at the last 25 years.

套用Robert Benchley的名言:「要一只狗教小孩子忠诚、忍耐,并此能够滚三圈再在地上躺好」,这就是经验传承的难处,不过不论如何,再犯下一错误之前,最好能够先反省一下以前的那些错误,所以让我们花点时间回顾一下过去25年的经验。

My first mistake, of course, was in buying control of Berkshire. Though I knew its business - textile manufacturing - to be unpromising, I was enticed to buy because the price looked cheap. Stock purchases of that kind had proved reasonably rewarding in my early years, though by the time Berkshire came along in 1965 I was becoming aware that the strategy was not ideal.

首先我所犯的第一个错误,当然就是买下Berkshire纺织的控制权,虽然我很清楚纺织这个产业没什么前景,却因为它的价格实在很便宜而受其所引诱,虽然在早期投资这样的股票确实让我获利颇丰,但在1965年投资Berkshire后,我就开始发现这终究不是个理想的投资模式。

If you buy a stock at a sufficiently low price, there will usually be some hiccup in the fortunes of the business that gives you a chance to unload at a decent profit, even though the long-term performance of the business may be terrible. I call this the "cigar butt" approach to investing. A cigar butt found on the street that has only one puff left in it may not offer much of a smoke, but the "bargain purchase" will make that puff all profit.

如果你以很低的价格买进一家公司的股票,应该很容易有机会以不错的获利出脱了结,虽然长期而言这家公司的经营结果可能很糟糕,我将这种投资方法称之为「烟屁股」投资法,在路边随地可见的香烟头捡起来可能让你吸一口,解一解烟瘾,但对于隐君子来说,也不过是举手之劳而已。

Unless you are a liquidator, that kind of approach to buying businesses is foolish. First, the original "bargain" price probably will not turn out to be such a steal after all. In a difficult business, no sooner is one problem solved than another surfaces - never is there just one cockroach in the kitchen. Second, any initial advantage you secure will be quickly eroded by the low return that the business earns. For example, if you buy a business for $8 million that can be sold or liquidated for $10 million and promptly take either course, you can realize a high return. But the investment will disappoint if the business is sold for $10 million in ten years and in the interim has annually earned and distributed only a few percent on cost. Time is the friend of the wonderful business, the enemy of the mediocre.

不过除非你是清算专家,否则买下这类公司实在是属于傻瓜行径,第一长期而言,原来看起来划算的价格到最后可能一点都不值得,在经营艰困的企业中,通常一个问题才刚解决不久,另外一个问题就又接踵而来,厨房里的蟑螂绝对不会只有你看到的那一只而已,第二先前的价差优势很快地就会被企业不佳的绩效所侵蚀,例如你用800万美元买下一家清算价值达1,000万美元的公司,若你能马上把这家公司给处理掉,不管是出售或是清算都好,换算下来你的报酬可能会很可观,但是若这家公司要花上你十年的时间才有办法把它给处理掉,而在这之前你只能拿回一点点可怜的股利的话,相信我时间虽然是好公司的朋友,但却是烂公司最大的敌人。

You might think this principle is obvious, but I had to learn it the hard way - in fact, I had to learn it several times over. Shortly after purchasing Berkshire, I acquired a Baltimore department store, Hochschild Kohn, buying through a company called Diversified Retailing that later merged with Berkshire. I bought at a substantial discount from book value, the people were first-class, and the deal included some extras - unrecorded real estate values and a significant LIFO inventory cushion. How could I miss? So-o-o - three years later I was lucky to sell the business for about what I had paid. After ending our corporate marriage to Hochschild Kohn, I had memories like those of the husband in the country song, "My Wife Ran Away With My Best Friend and I Still Miss Him a Lot."

或许你会认为这道理再简单不过了,不过我却必须经历惨痛的教训才真正的搞懂,在买下Berkshire不久之后,我又买了巴尔的摩百货公司、Hochschild Kohn与一家叫多元零售公司(后来与Berkshire合并),我以相当的折价幅度买下这些公司,经营的人也属一流,整个交易甚至还有额外的利益,包含未实现的房地产增值利益与后进先出法的存货会计原则,我到底还漏掉了什么? 还好三年之后,算我走狗运,能够以成本价左右的价格脱身,在跟Hochschild Kohn公司结束关系之后,我只有一个感想,就像一首乡村歌曲的歌词所述的,「我的老婆跟我最要好的朋友跑了,我是多么地怀念他!」

I could give you other personal examples of "bargain-purchase" folly but I'm sure you get the picture: It's far better to buy a wonderful company at a fair price than a fair company at a wonderful price. Charlie understood this early; I was a slow learner. But now, when buying companies or common stocks, we look for first-class businesses accompanied by first-class managements.

我可以给各位另外一个个人经验,以合理的价格买下一家好公司要比用便宜的价格买下一家普通的公司来的好的多,像查理老早就明白这个道理,我的反应则比较慢,不过现在当我们投资公司或股票时,我们不但选择最好的公司,同时这些公司还要有好的经理人。

That leads right into a related lesson: Good jockeys will do well on good horses, but not on broken-down nags. Both Berkshire's textile business and Hochschild, Kohn had able and honest people running them. The same managers employed in a business with good economic characteristics would have achieved fine records. But they were never going to make any progress while running in quicksand.

从这里我们又学到了一课,好的马还要搭配好骑师才能有好成绩,像Berkshire纺织与Hochschild, Kohn也都有才能兼具的人在管理,很不幸的他们所面临的是流沙般的困境,若能将这些人摆在体质更好的公司相信他们应该会有更好的成绩。

I've said many times that when a management with a reputation for brilliance tackles a business with a reputation for bad economics, it is the reputation of the business that remains intact. I just wish I hadn't been so energetic in creating examples. My behavior has matched that admitted by Mae West: "I was Snow White, but I drifted."

我曾说过好几次,当一个绩效卓著的经理人遇到一家恶名昭彰的企业,通常会是后者占上风,但愿我再也没有那么多精力来创造新的例子,我以前的行为就像是Mae West曾说的︰「曾经我是个白雪公主,不过如今我已不再清白。」

A further related lesson: Easy does it. After 25 years of buying and supervising a great variety of businesses, Charlie and I have not learned how to solve difficult business problems. What we have learned is to avoid them. To the extent we have been successful, it is because we concentrated on identifying one-foot hurdles that we could step over rather than because we acquired any ability to clear seven-footers.

另外还学到一个教训,在经历25年企业管理与经营各种不同事业的岁月之后,查理跟我还是没能学会如此去解决难题,不过我们倒学会如何去避免他们,在这点我们倒做的相当成功,我们专挑那种一呎的低栏,而避免碰到七呎的跳高。

The finding may seem unfair, but in both business and investments it is usually far more profitable to simply stick with the easy and obvious than it is to resolve the difficult. On occasion, tough problems must be tackled as was the case when we started our Sunday paper in Buffalo. In other instances, a great investment opportunity occurs when a marvelous business encounters a one-time huge, but solvable, problem as was the case many years back at both American Express and GEICO. Overall, however, we've done better by avoiding dragons than by slaying them.

这项发现看起来似乎是不太公平,不管是在经营企业或是投资通长坚持在容易又明显的好公司会比死守在有问题的公司要来的好,当然有时困难的问题也有被解决的机会,像是我们刚开始在经营水牛城报纸一样,或是有时一家好公司也会有暂时的难关,像是以前美国运通与GEICO都曾经一度发生状况,不过总的来说,我们尽量做到回避妖龙,而不是冒险去屠龙。

My most surprising discovery: the overwhelming importance in business of an unseen force that we might call "the institutional imperative." In business school, I was given no hint of the imperative's existence and I did not intuitively understand it when I entered the business world. I thought then that decent, intelligent, and experienced managers would automatically make rational business decisions. But I learned over time that isn't so. Instead, rationality frequently wilts when the institutional imperative comes into play.

我最意外的发现是企业一种看不到的巨大影响力,我们称之为"系统规范",在学校时没有人告诉我这种规范的存在,而我也不是一开始进入商业世界就知道有这回事,我以为任何正当、聪明有经验的经理人都会很自动的做这样的决策,但慢慢地我发现完全就不是这么一回事,相反的理性的态度在系统规范的影响下都会慢慢地变质。

For example: (1) As if governed by Newton's First Law of Motion, an institution will resist any change in its current direction; (2) Just as work expands to fill available time, corporate projects or acquisitions will materialize to soak up available funds; (3) Any business craving of the leader, however foolish, will be quickly supported by detailed rate-of-return and strategic studies prepared by his troops; and (4) The behavior of peer companies, whether they are expanding, acquiring, setting executive compensation or whatever, will be mindlessly imitated.

举例来说(1)就好象是受牛顿第一运动定律所规范,任何一个组织机构都会抵抗对现有方向做任何的改变(2)就像拥有会有工作来填满所有的时间,企业的计画或购并案永远有足够的理由将资金耗尽(3)任何一个崇拜领导者的组织,不管有多离谱,他的追随者永远可以找到可以支持其理论的投资评估分析报告(4)同业的举动,不管是做扩张、购并或是订定经理人待遇等都会在无意间彼此模仿。

Institutional dynamics, not venality or stupidity, set businesses on these courses, which are too often misguided. After making some expensive mistakes because I ignored the power of the imperative, I have tried to organize and manage Berkshire in ways that minimize its influence. Furthermore, Charlie and I have attempted to concentrate our investments in companies that appear alert to the problem.

是组织的动力而非腐败或愚蠢,误导他们走上这些路子,也因为我忽略了这种规律的力量,使我为这些所犯的错误付出高昂的代价,之后我便试图组织管理Berkshire尽量让这种规律降低其影响程度,同时查理跟我也试着将我们的投资集中在对于这种问题有相当警觉的公司之上。

After some other mistakes, I learned to go into business only with people whom I like, trust, and admire. As I noted before, this policy of itself will not ensure success: A second-class textile or department-store company won't prosper simply because its managers are men that you would be pleased to see your daughter marry. However, an owner - or investor - can accomplish wonders if he manages to associate himself with such people in businesses that possess decent economic characteristics. Conversely, we do not wish to join with managers who lack admirable qualities, no matter how attractive the prospects of their business. We've never succeeded in making a good deal with a bad person.

再犯下其它几个错误之后,我试着尽量只与我们所欣赏喜爱与信任的人往来,就像是我之前曾提到的,这种原则本身不会保证你一定成功,二流的纺织工厂或是百货公司不会只因为管理人员是那种你会想把女儿嫁给他的人就会成功的,然而公司的老板或是投资人却可以因为与那些真正具有商业头脑的人打交道而获益良多,相反地我们不会希望跟那些不具令人尊敬的特质为伍,不管他的公司有多吸引人都一样,我们永远不会靠着与坏人打交道而成功。

Some of my worst mistakes were not publicly visible. These were stock and business purchases whose virtues I understood and yet didn't make. It's no sin to miss a great opportunity outside one's area of competence. But I have passed on a couple of really big purchases that were served up to me on a platter and that I was fully capable of understanding. For Berkshire's shareholders, myself included, the cost of this thumb-sucking has been huge.

其实有些更严重的错误大家根本就看不到,那是一些明明我很熟悉了解的股票或公司,但却因故没有能完成投资,错失一些能力之外的大好机会当然没有罪,但是我却白白错过一些自动送上门,应该把握却没有好好把握的好买卖,对于Berkshire的股东,当然包括我自己本身在内,这种损失是难以估计的。

Our consistently-conservative financial policies may appear to have been a mistake, but in my view were not. In retrospect, it is clear that significantly higher, though still conventional, leverage ratios at Berkshire would have produced considerably better returns on equity than the 23.8% we have actually averaged. Even in 1965, perhaps we could have judged there to be a 99% probability that higher leverage would lead to nothing but good. Correspondingly, we might have seen only a 1% chance that some shock factor, external or internal, would cause a conventional debt ratio to produce a result falling somewhere between temporary anguish and default.

另外我们一贯保守财务政策可能也是一种错误,不过就我个人的看法却不认为如此,回想起来,很明显的我们只要能够再多用一点财务杠杆操作(虽然较之他人还是很保守),就可以得到远比现在每年平均23.8%还要高的投资报酬率,即使是在1965年我们也可以百分之九十九地确定高一点的财务杠杆绝对只有好处没有坏处,但同时我们可能也会有百分之一的机会,不管是从内部或是外部所引发令人异想不到的因素,使得我们负债比率提高到介于一时冲高到负债倒闭之间。

We wouldn't have liked those 99:1 odds - and never will. A small chance of distress or disgrace cannot, in our view, be offset by a large chance of extra returns. If your actions are sensible, you are certain to get good results; in most such cases, leverage just moves things along faster. Charlie and I have never been in a big hurry: We enjoy the process far more than the proceeds - though we have learned to live with those also.

我们一点都不会想要有那种99比1的可能性,以后也不会,一点挫败或是侮辱小小的可能性永远没有办法可以用很有可能大捞一笔的大好机会来弥补,只要你的行为合理,你就一定能够得到好的结果,在大部分的状况下,融资杠杆顶多只会让你移动的更快,查理跟我从来都不会着急,我们享受过程更甚于结果,虽然我们也必须学会去承担后者。

We hope in another 25 years to report on the mistakes of the first 50. If we are around in 2015 to do that, you can count on this section occupying many more pages than it does here.

我们希望25年后还能向各位报告Berkshire头50年所犯的错误,我想公元2015年的年报,大家应该可以确定这一部份将占据更多的版面。

Miscellaneous

其它事项

We hope to buy more businesses that are similar to the ones we have, and we can use some help. If you have a business that fits the following criteria, call me or, preferably, write.

我们希望能够买进更多像我们现在拥有一样的企业,当然我们可以透过大家的协助,如果你拥有符合以下条件的企业,记得打电话或者是写信告诉我。

Here's what we're looking for:

(1) Large purchases (at least $10 million of after-tax earnings),

(2) demonstrated consistent earning power (future projections are of little interest to us, nor are "turnaround" situations),

(3) businesses earning good returns on equity while employing little or no debt,

(4) management in place (we can't supply it),

(5) simple businesses (if there's lots of technology, we won't understand it),

(6) an offering price (we don't want to waste our time or that of the seller by talking, even preliminarily, about a transaction when price is unknown).

We will not engage in unfriendly takeovers. We can promise complete confidentiality and a very fast answer - customarily within five minutes - as to whether we're interested. We prefer to buy for cash, but will consider issuing stock when we receive as much in intrinsic business value as we give. Our favorite form of purchase is one fitting the Blumkin-Friedman-Heldman mold. In cases like these, the company's owner-managers wish to generate significant amounts of cash, sometimes for themselves, but often for their families or inactive shareholders. At the same time, these managers wish to remain significant owners who continue to run their companies just as they have in the past. We think we offer a particularly good fit for owners with such objectives. We invite potential sellers to check us out by contacting people with whom we have done business in the past.

我们想要找的企业条件

(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有一千万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并且甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)

我们不会进行敌意的购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。我们最喜欢的交易对象之一是像B太太- Heldman家族那样,公司经营者希望能马上有一大笔现金,不管是给自己、家人或是其它股东,最好这些经营者如往常一样能够继续留在公司,我想我们可以提供具有以上想法的经营者,一个满意的方式,我们也欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听。

Charlie and I frequently get approached about acquisitions that don't come close to meeting our tests: We've found that if you advertise an interest in buying collies, a lot of people will call hoping to sell you their cocker spaniels. Our interest in new ventures, turnarounds, or auction-like sales can best be expressed by a Goldwynism: "Please include me out."

另一方面查理跟我也常常接到一些不符合我们条件的询问,包括新事业、转机股、拍卖案以及最常见的中介案。我们发现如果你登广告要买牧羊犬,结果却有一大堆人打电话来要卖你长耳猎犬,在此重申我们对这些交易,只有高德温的另一句话可以形容,请把我排除在外。

Besides being interested in the purchase of businesses as described above, we are also interested in the negotiated purchase of large, but not controlling, blocks of stock comparable to those we hold in Capital Cities, Salomon, Gillette, USAir and Champion. Last year we said we had a special interest in large purchases of convertible preferreds. We still have an appetite of that kind, but it is limited since we now are close to the maximum position we feel appropriate for this category of investment.

除了以上买下整家公司的购并案外,我们也会考虑买进一大部份不具控制权的股份,就像我们在资本城、所罗门、吉列、美国航空与冠军企业这几个Case一样的公司,去年我曾告诉各位我们对于买进大笔金额的可转换特别股相当有兴趣,到现在这种态度还是没改变,只不过由于目前这部份的部位已经接近我们认为适当的水位。

Two years ago, I told you about Harry Bottle, who in 1962 quickly cured a major business mess at the first industrial company I controlled, Dempster Mill Manufacturing (one of my "bargain" purchases) and who 24 years later had reappeared to again rescue me, this time from problems at K&W Products, a small Berkshire subsidiary that produces automotive compounds. As I reported, in short order Harry reduced capital employed at K&W, rationalized production, cut costs, and quadrupled profits. You might think he would then have paused for breath. But last year Harry, now 70, attended a bankruptcy auction and, for a pittance, acquired a product line that is a natural for K&W. That company'sprofitability may well be increased 50% by this coup. Watch this space for future bulletins on Harry's triumphs.

两年前,我曾跟各位提到Harry Bottle这个人,他在1962年曾帮我解决我个人所控制的第一家公司Dempster纺织制造公司(又是一个便宜货),一个大难题,接着在24年后又重出江湖来拯救我,那次换做K&W一家Berkshire所属专门生产自动组件的小公司,就像我曾提到的,Harry很快地就有效地降低K&W的资金负担、大砍成本使获利倍增,你或许认为任务完成后,他铁定要休息一下喘口气,但是去年高龄70岁的他,又参与一家破产公司的拍卖,以极少数的资金取得符合K&W使用的产品线,经过这次斩获,公司的获利又因此将增加50%以上,请大家好好拭目以待,这个专门替Harry准备的专栏。

With more than a year behind him of trading Berkshire's stock on the New York Stock Exchange, our specialist, Jim Maguire of Henderson Brothers, Inc. ("HBI"), continues his outstanding performance. Before we listed, dealer spreads often were 3% or more of market price. Jim has maintained the spread at 50 points or less, which at current prices is well under 1%. Shareholders who buy or sell benefit significantly from this reduction in transaction costs.

Henderson 兄弟公司的Jim Maguire是纽约证交所专门帮我们买卖Berkshire股票的交易员,一年下来他的表现相当称职,在Berkshire上市挂牌之前,公司股份买卖的价差多在3%甚至以上,但Jim却能将价差维持在50点以下,这使得股东在买卖本公司股份的交易成本降到1%以下。

Because we are delighted by our experience with Jim, HBI and the NYSE, I said as much in ads that have been run in a series placed by the NYSE. Normally I shun testimonials, but I was pleased in this instance to publicly compliment the Exchange.

因为我们与Jim、NYSE与纽约证交所这次合作愉快的经验,使我尽可能在纽约证交所安排的活动中免费帮他们打广告,通常我种场合我是能免则免,但这次我很高兴能够公开地赞扬交易所的表现。

Last summer we sold the corporate jet that we purchased for $850,000 three years ago and bought another used jet for $6.7 million. Those of you who recall the mathematics of the multiplying bacteria on page 5 will understandably panic: If our net worth continues to increase at current rates, and the cost of replacing planes also continues to rise at the now-established rate of 100% compounded annually, it will not be long before Berkshire's entire net worth is consumed by its jet.

去年夏天我们把三年前以85万美元买的公司专机给卖掉,另外又以670万美元买了一架二手飞机,大家只要想到先前我提过的细胞复制的数字游戏就会觉得很惊讶,如果我们公司的净值持续以相同速度增长,而更换飞机的成本同样也以每年100%的速度上升,大家会发现,Berkshire庞大的净值很快就会被这架飞机给吃光光。

Charlie doesn't like it when I equate the jet with bacteria; he feels it's degrading to the bacteria. His idea of traveling in style is an air-conditioned bus, a luxury he steps up to only when bargain fares are in effect. My own attitude toward the jet can be summarized by the prayer attributed, apocryphally I'm sure, to St. Augustine as he contemplated leaving a life of secular pleasures to become a priest. Battling the conflict between intellect and glands, he pled: "Help me, Oh Lord, to become chaste - but not yet."

查理对于我将飞机比喻成细菌的做法不太高兴,他认为这样岂不污辱了细菌,他个人最理想的旅行方式是坐有空调冷气的巴士,这还是当车票有打折时才有的奢侈做法。对于这架专机我个人一贯的态度是圣奥古斯丁当初想要脱离世俗的富裕生活出家去到教士一样,在理智与荣耀的中间天人交战,他乞求上天,救救我吧,让我成为一个圣洁的人,不过不是现在!

Naming the plane has not been easy. I initially suggested "The Charles T. Munger." Charlie countered with "The Aberration." We finally settled on "The Indefensible."

替这架飞机命名可不是一件简单的事,一开始我建议取名叫做查理孟格号,查理反击说应该叫神经有问题号,最后双方妥协决定称它为「无可辩解号」。

About 96.9% of all eligible shares participated in Berkshire's 1989 shareholder-designated contributions program. Contributions made through the program were $5.9 million, and 2,550 charities were recipients.

大约有96.9%的有效股权参与1989年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约590万美元捐出的款项分配给2,550家慈善机构。

We urge new shareholders to read the description of our shareholder-designated contributions program that appears on pages 52-53. If you wish to participate in future programs, we strongly urge that you immediately make sure your shares are registered in the name of the actual owner, not in the nominee name of a broker, bank or depository. Shares not so registered on August 31, 1990 will be ineligible for the 1990 program.

我们敦促新加入的股东,仔细阅读年报上有关股东捐赠计画的详细内容,如果在未来年度内,你想要参加这类的计画,我们强烈建议你将股份登记在自己而不是受托人的名下,必须在1990年8月31日之前完成登记,才有权利参与1990年的计画。

The annual meeting this year will take place at 9:30 a.m. on Monday, April 30, 1990. Attendance grew last year to about 1,000, very close to the seating capacity of the Witherspoon Hall at Joslyn Museum. So this year's meeting will be moved to the Orpheum Theatre, which is in downtown Omaha, about one-quarter of a mile from the Red Lion Hotel. The Radisson-Redick Tower, a much smaller but nice hotel, is located across the street from the Orpheum. Or you may wish to stay at the Marriott, which is in west Omaha, about 100 yards from Borsheim's. We will have buses at the Marriott that will leave at 8:30 and 8:45 for the meeting and return after it ends.

今年的股东会预计在1990年4月30日,星期一早上9点30分举行,去年股东会参加人数突破一万人,差点超过开会场地的座位容量,所以今年的会场将会移到奥玛哈市中心的Orpheum中心,对街有一家不错的旅馆叫Radisson-Redick,另外距离红狮旅馆约有1英理远,当然你也可以选择离波仙珠宝店100公尺远的Marriott,届时将会有巴士接送大家往返股东会会场。

Charlie and I always enjoy the meeting, and we hope you can make it. The quality of our shareholders is reflected in the quality of the questions we get: We have never attended an annual meeting anywhere that features such a consistently high level of intelligent, owner-related questions.

查理跟我一直都很喜欢开股东会,我也希望大家能够来参加,我们股东的素质可由大家所提出的问题看得出来,我们参加过很多股东会,但从来没有别的公司的股东像Berkshire的股东一样由高智能水准与经营者荣枯与共的股东组合。

An attachment to our proxy material explains how you can obtain the card you will need for admission to the meeting. Because weekday parking can be tight around the Orpheum, we have lined up a number of nearby lots for our shareholders to use. The attachment also contains information about them.

后面附有股东会开会投票的相关资料,跟各位解释如何拿到入场所许的识别证,因为开会当天会场不好停车,我们特地为大家预留了一些位置,附件也有相关说明供大家参考。

As usual, we will have buses to take you to Nebraska Furniture Mart and Borsheim's after the meeting and to take you to downtown hotels or to the airport later. I hope that you will allow plenty of time to fully explore the attractions of both stores. Those of you arriving early can visit the Furniture Mart any day of the week; it is open from 10 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. on Saturdays, and from noon to 5:30 p.m. on Sundays.

一如往常,会后我们备有巴士带大家到内布拉斯加家具店与波仙珠宝店或是到饭店与机场,我希望大家能有多一点的时间好好探索这两家店的奥妙,当然早几天到的股东也可利用假日逛逛家具店,星期六从早上10点到下午5点30分,星期日则从中午开到下午5点30分。

Borsheim's normally is closed on Sunday, but we will open for shareholders and their guests from noon to 6 p.m. on Sunday, April 29th. Ike likes to put on a show, and you can rely on him to produce something very special for our shareholders.

波仙星期天通常不开门营业,但在股东会期间特别破例,4月29日星期天从中午开到下午6点,Ike特地为股东们准备了一场秀,相信他一定可以让大家见识到一些特别的东西。

In this letter we've had a lot to say about rates of compounding. If you can bear having your own rate turn negative for a day - not a pretty thought, I admit - visit Ike on the 29th.

今年我们提到很多次有关复利的事,若是你能忍受个人净值暂时倒退一天的话,虽然不建议常常这样做,记得在29号去看看Ike的秀吧!

一九九零

Last year we made a prediction: "A reduction [in Berkshire's net worth] is almost certain in at least one of the next three years." During much of 1990's second half, we were on the road to quickly proving that forecast accurate. But some strengthening in stock prices late in the year enabled us to close 1990 with net worth up by $362 million, or 7.3%. Over the last 26 years (that is, since present management took over) our per-share book value has grown from $19.46 to $4,612.06, or at a rate of 23.2% compounded annually.

去年我们曾经预测过,Berkshire的净值在未来的三年内有可能会减少,结果在1990年的下半年我们差点就证明了这项预测的真实性,还好年底前股票价格的上涨使得我们公司的净值,还是较前一个年度增加7.3%,约3.62亿美元;而总计过去26年以来(也就是自从现有经营阶层接手后),每股净值从19元成长到现在的4,612美元,年复合成长率约为23.2%。
Our growth rate was lackluster in 1990 because our four major common stock holdings, in aggregate, showed little change in market value. Last year I told you that though these companies - Capital Cities/ABC, Coca-Cola, GEICO, and Washington Post - had fine businesses and superb managements, widespread recognition of these attributes had pushed the stock prices of the four to lofty levels. The market prices of the two media companies have since fallen significantly - for good reasons relating to evolutionary industry developments that I will discuss later - and the price of Coca-Cola stock has increased significantly for what I also believe are good reasons. Overall, yearend 1990 prices of our "permanent four," though far from enticing, were a bit more appealing than they were a year earlier.

1990年成长之所以减缓的原因主要是因为我们四个主要的股票投资市值加总并没有多大的变动所致,去年我曾向各位表示,虽然这些公司-资本城/ABC、可口可乐、GEICO保险与华盛顿邮报等,拥有良好的企业体质与经营阶层,但是因为这些特点现在已广为投资大众所认同,所以也促使公司股价推升到一个颇高的价位;另外其中两家媒体事业之后的股价又大幅滑落,原因在于后面我会再详细叙述该产业革命性的演进,另外可口可乐的股价也因为我个人也相当认同的原因为大众所接受而大涨,不过总的来说,目前这四大天王的股价,虽然不够吸引人,但比起一年以前来说,要算是合理的多。

Berkshire's 26-year record is meaningless in forecasting future results; so also, we hope, is the one-year record. We continue to aim for a 15% average annual gain in intrinsic value. But, as we never tire of telling you, this goal becomes ever more difficult to reach as our equity base, now $5.3 billion, increases.
Berkshire过去26年来辉煌的记录并不足以确保未来也会如此发展,当然我们也希望过去一年惨痛的记录也不能代表未来的结果就是如此,我们还是依旧将目标订在每年15%的实质价值成长率,只是还有一点是过去从未向各位报告的,以我们现在的股权规模,要完成这项任务的门槛是53亿美金!
If we do attain that 15% average, our shareholders should fare well. However, Berkshire's corporate gains will produce an identical gain for a specific shareholder only if he eventually sells his shares at the same relationship to intrinsic value that existed when he bought them. For example, if you buy at a 10% premium to intrinsic value; if intrinsic value subsequently grows at 15% a year; and if you then sell at a 10% premium, your own return will correspondingly be 15% compounded. (The calculation assumes that no dividends are paid.) If, however, you buy at a premium and sell at a smaller premium, your results will be somewhat inferior to those achieved by the company.

要是我们真的能够达到这样的目标,那么我们的股东一定赚翻了,因为Berkshire的企业获利将会为那些买卖价格与公司实质价值一致的投资人创造相同的获利,举例来说,如果你以实质价值10%的溢价买进Berkshire股份,假设后来公司实质价值每年成长了15%,而之后你同样以实质价值10%的溢价卖出所持有的股份,则你的投资年报酬率应该也会是15%(这个例子假设期间公司并未发放任何股利),当然要是后来你以低于10%的溢价卖出股份的话,那么你最后所得到的投资报酬率可能就会低于公司同期间15%的报酬率。

Ideally, the results of every Berkshire shareholder would closely mirror those of the company during his period of ownership. That is why Charlie Munger, Berkshire's Vice Chairman and my partner, and I hope for Berkshire to sell consistently at about intrinsic value. We prefer such steadiness to the value-ignoring volatility of the past two years: In 1989 intrinsic value grew less than did book value, which was up 44%, while the market price rose 85%; in 1990 book value and intrinsic value increased by a small amount, while the market price fell 23%.

在理想的情况下,Berkshire所有的股东的投资报酬,在其拥有公司部份所有权的期间,应该会与公司本身的经营成果相符,这也是为什么查理孟格-Berkshire的副主席,也是主要的合伙人,和我本身都希望Berkshire的股价能与其所代表的实质价值维持一定关系的原因,相较于过去两年股市默视价值的任意波动,我们宁愿Berkshire股价稳定一点,1989年的实质价值约成长幅度远低于帐面价值44%的增加幅度,与股价85%的大涨;到了1990年,帐面价值与实质价值都略微增加,但同期间的本公司的股票价格却下跌了23%。。

Berkshire's intrinsic value continues to exceed book value by a substantial margin. We can't tell you the exact differential because intrinsic value is necessarily an estimate; Charlie and I might, in fact, differ by 10% in our appraisals. We do know, however, that we own some exceptional businesses that are worth considerably more than the values at which they are carried on our books.

截至目前为止,Berkshire的实质价值仍与帐面价值仍有一段不小的差距,不过我们无法告诉你实际的数字是多少,因为实质价值本身就是一个估计数,事实上光是查理与我自己本身所估出来的数字就可能有超过10%的差距,不过可以确信的是,我们所拥有一些优秀的企业其实际的价值远高于列示在公司帐上的投资成本。

Much of the extra value that exists in our businesses has been created by the managers now running them. Charlie and I feel free to brag about this group because we had nothing to do with developing the skills they possess: These superstars just came that way. Our job is merely to identify talented managers and provide an environment in which they can do their stuff. Having done it, they send their cash to headquarters and we face our only other task: the intelligent deployment of these funds.

我们的被投资公司之所以能够拥有这么多额外的价值,完全要归功于经营它们的这批优秀经理人,查理跟我可以很自在地夸耀这支团队,因为他们之所以能够拥有这些才能与我们一点关系都没有,这些超级经理人一直都是如此,而我们的工作只不过是发掘这些有才能的经理人同时提供一个环境,让他们可以好好地发挥,就这样他们就会将现金源源不绝地送回总部,接下来我们就会面临另一项重要的任务-如何有效地运用这些资金。

My own role in operations may best be illustrated by a small tale concerning my granddaughter, Emily, and her fourth birthday party last fall. Attending were other children, adoring relatives, and Beemer the Clown, a local entertainer who includes magic tricks in his act.

我个人在营运上扮演的角色可由我孙女Emily的一个小故事来做说明,去年秋天在她四岁的生日宴会上,参加的人除了小朋友与疼爱她的家人之外,还有一位小丑演员Beemer,席间他还特地为大家表演了一段魔术。

Beginning these, Beemer asked Emily to help him by waving a "magic wand" over "the box of wonders." Green handkerchiefs went into the box, Emily waved the wand, and Beemer removed blue ones. Loose handkerchiefs went in and, upon a magisterial wave by Emily, emerged knotted. After four such transformations, each more amazing than its predecessor, Emily was unable to contain herself. Her face aglow, she exulted: "Gee, I'm really good at this."

一开始Beemer请Emily帮他拿一支神奇的魔棒在一个宝贝箱上挥舞,绿色的手帕放进箱子里,在Emily挥了棒子一下之后,跑出来蓝色的手帕;接着又放进一条手帕,Emily又挥了一下,这回跑出一条打结的手帕,经过四回合一次比一次精彩的表演之后,Emily喜不自胜,脸上发光沾沾自喜的大叫,「我实在是太厉害了!」

And that sums up my contribution to the performance of Berkshire's business magicians - the Blumkins, the Friedman family, Mike Goldberg, the Heldmans, Chuck Huggins, Stan Lipsey and Ralph Schey. They deserve your applause.

这就是我在Berkshire的所有贡献,感谢旗下企业所有的魔术师- Blumkins家族、Friedman 家族、Mike Goldberg、the Heldmans、Chuck Huggins、Stan Lipsey与Ralph Schey等人,请为这些人精彩的演出给予热烈的掌声。
Sources of Reported Earnings帐列盈余的来源

The table below shows the major sources of Berkshire's reported earnings. In this presentation, amortization of Goodwill and other major purchase-price accounting adjustments are not charged against the specific businesses to which they apply, but are instead aggregated and shown separately. This procedure lets you view the earnings of our businesses as they would have been reported had we not purchased them. I've explained in past reports why this form of presentation seems to us to be more useful to investors and managers than one utilizing generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which require purchase-price adjustments to be made on a business-by-business basis. The total net earnings we show in the table are, of course, identical to the GAAP total in our audited financial statements.

下表显示Berkshire帐列盈余的主要来源,在这张表中商誉的摊销数与购买法会计调整数会从个别被投资公司分离出来,单独加总列示,之所以这样做是为了让旗下各事业的盈余状况,不因我们的投资而有所影响,过去我一再地强调我们认为这样的表达方式,较之一般公认会计原则要求以个别企业基础做调整,不管是对投资者或是管理者来说,更有帮助,当然最后损益加总的数字仍然会与经会计师查核的数字一致。

Much additional information about these businesses is given on pages 39-46, where you also will find our segment earnings reported on a GAAP basis. For information on Wesco's businesses, I urge you to read Charlie Munger's letter, which starts on page 56. His letter also contains the clearest and most insightful discussion of the banking industry that I have seen.

年报中还有企业个别部门的信息,有关Wesco公司的信息,我强烈建议大家可以看看查理孟格所写的年报,里头包含我看过对银行产业写的最详尽精辟的分析。

(000s omitted) Berkshire's Share of Net Earnings (after taxes and Pre-Tax Earnings minority interests)

Operating Earnings: Insurance Group


 
 
Underwriting
 
Net Investment Income
 
Buffalo News
 
Fechheimer
 
Kirby
 
Nebraska Furniture Mart
 

1990
 
$(26,647)
 
327,048
 
43,954
 
12,450
 
27,445
 
17,248
 

1989
 
$(24,400)
 
243,599
 
46,047
 
12,621
 
26,114
 
17,070
 

1990
 
$(14,936)
 
282,613
 
25,981
 
6,605
 
17,613
 
8,485
 

1989
 
$(12,259)
 
213,642
 
27,771
 
6,789
 
16,803
 
8,441
 

 


 
 
Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group
 
See's Candies
 
Wesco - other than Insurance
 
World Book
 
Amortization of Goodwill
 

1990
 
30,378
 
39,580
 
12,441
 
31,896
 
(3,476)
 

1989
 
33,165
 
34,235
 
13,008
 
25,583
 
(3,387)
 

1990
 
18,458
 
23,892
 
9,676
 
20,420
 
(3,461)
 

1989
 
19,996
 
20,626
 
9,810
 
16,372
 
(3,372)
 

Other Purchase-Price


 
 
Accounting Charges
 
Interest Expense*
 

1990
 
(5,951)
 
(76,374)
 

1989
 
(5,740)
 
(42,389)
 

1990
 
(6,856)
 
(49,726)
 

1989
 
(6,668)
 
(27,098)
 

Shareholder-Designated


 
 
Contributions
 
Other
 
Operating Earnings
 
Sales of Securities
 

1990
 
(5,824)
 
58,309
 
482,477
 
33,989
 

1989
 
(5,867)
 
23,755
 
393,414
 
223,810
 

1990
 
(3,801)
 
35,782
 
370,745
 
23,348
 

1989
 
(3,814)
 
12,863
 
299,902
 
147,575
 

Total Earnings - All Entities


1990
 
1989
 
1990
 
1989
 

$516,466
 
$617,224
 
$394,093
 
$447,477
 

*Excludes interest expense of Scott Fetzer Financial Group and Mutual Savings & Loan.

*不包含史考特飞兹与联合储贷的利息费用

We refer you also to pages 47-53, where we have rearranged Berkshire's financial data into four segments. These correspond to the way Charlie and I think about the business and should help you more in estimating Berkshire's intrinsic value than consolidated figures would do. Shown on these pages are balance sheets and earnings statements for: (1) our insurance operations, with their majorinvestment positions itemized; (2) our manufacturing, publishing and retailing businesses, leaving aside certain non- operating assets and purchase-price accounting adjustments; (3) our subsidiaries engaged in finance-type operations, which are Mutual Savings and Scott Fetzer Financial; and (4) an all-other category that includes the non-operating assets (primarily marketable securities) held by the companies in segment (2), all purchase- price accounting adjustments, and various assets and debts of the Wesco and Berkshire parent companies.

目前我们已将Berkshire的财务信息重新分类为四大部门,这是查理跟我认为最可以帮助大家计算本公司实质价值的最好方式,以下的资产负债表与盈余表就是依此分类表示(1)保险事业,另将主要投资部位归类(2)制造、出版与零售事业,扣除非本业资产与购买法的会计调整(3)金融业的子公司-诸如联合储贷与史考特飞兹财务公司(4)其它项目,包含前述非营业资产(主要是有价证券投资)与购买法调整,还有Wesco与Berkshire母公司一些其它的资产与负债。

If you combine the earnings and net worths of these four segments, you will derive totals matching those shown on our GAAP statements. However, I want to emphasize that this four-category presentation does not fall within the purview of our auditors, who in no way bless it.

如果你将这四个部门的盈余与净值加总,会得到与经会计师依一般公认会计原则查核一致的数字,然而我还是必须强调这种表达方式并未经过会计师的检视,我想他宁可选择不要看的好。
"Look-Through" Earnings透视盈余

The term "earnings" has a precise ring to it. And when an earnings figure is accompanied by an unqualified auditor's certificate, a naive reader might think it comparable in certitude to pi, calculated to dozens of decimal places.

盈余这个名词有一个明确的定义,而当盈余数字再加上会计师无保留意见的背书后,单纯的投资人可能就会以为它是像圆周率一样经过计算,可以到好几个小数点般精确。

In reality, however, earnings can be as pliable as putty when a charlatan heads the company reporting them. Eventually truth will surface, but in the meantime a lot of money can change hands. Indeed, some important American fortunes have been created by the monetization of accounting mirages.

然而事实上,当公司盈余数字是由骗徒所主导时,盈余可能像油灰一样地脆弱,当然到最后真相一定会大白,但在此同时一大笔财富可能已经换手,确实许多美国财富传奇就是靠着这种会计数字假象所创造出来的。

Funny business in accounting is not new. For connoisseurs of chicanery, I have attached as Appendix A on page 22 a previously unpublished satire on accounting practices written by Ben Graham in 1936. Alas, excesses similar to those he then lampooned have many times since found their way into the financial statements of major American corporations and been duly certified by big-name auditors. Clearly, investors must always keep their guard up and use accounting numbers as a beginning, not an end, in their attempts to calculate true "economic earnings" accruing to them.

有趣的企业会计并不是件新鲜事,对于企业诈骗的专家,我特别附上班哲明葛拉罕在1936年所写未经出版有关会计做帐的讽刺性文章,自此之后,我们可以发现这种葛拉罕所描写的方法散见于各大美国企业财务报表中,而且全部都经过各大会计师事务所签证背书,所以对此投资人必须特别提高警戒,要了解在计算一家公司的实质的经济盈余时,会计数字只不过是个出发点,而绝非是最后的结果。

Berkshire's own reported earnings are misleading in a different, but important, way: We have huge investments in companies ("investees") whose earnings far exceed their dividends and in which we record our share of earnings only to the extent of the dividends we receive. The extreme case is Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. Our 17% share of the company's earnings amounted to more than $83 million last year. Yet only about $530,000 ($600,000 of dividends it paid us less some $70,000 of tax) is counted in Berkshire's GAAP earnings. The residual $82 million-plus stayed with Cap Cities as retained earnings, which work for our benefit but go unrecorded on our books.

Berkshire本身的盈余在某些重要的方面也有所误导,首先我们主要的被投资公司其实际盈余远高于后来发放的股利,而Berkshire帐列的盈余也仅限于这些已发放的股利收入,最明显的例子就是资本城/ABC公司,若依照我们持股17%的比例,去年可分得的利润是8,300万美元,但Berkshire依照一般公认会计原则所认列的投资利益却只有53万美元(亦即60万股利收入扣除7万美元的税负),剩下8,200多万的盈余则保留在该公司的帐上,虽然实际上对我们大有益处,但在我们公司的帐上却一点踪迹都没有。

Our perspective on such "forgotten-but-not-gone" earnings is simple: The way they are accounted for is of no importance, but their ownership and subsequent utilization is all-important. We care not whether the auditors hear a tree fall in the forest; we do care who owns the tree and what's next done with it.

我们对于这种被遗忘但却存在的盈余的态度很简单,到底认不认列数字一点都不重要,最重要的是我们可以确定这些盈余可以为我们所有且会被充分加以运用,我们不在乎听到会计师说森林中有一棵树被砍倒了,我们在乎的是这棵树是不是属于我们的,以及之后要如何来处理它。

When Coca-Cola uses retained earnings to repurchase its shares, the company increases our percentage ownership in what I regard to be the most valuable franchise in the world. (Coke also, of course, uses retained earnings in many other value-enhancing ways.) Instead of repurchasing stock, Coca-Cola could pay those funds to us in dividends, which we could then use to purchase more Coke shares. That would be a less efficient scenario: Because of taxes we would pay on dividend income, we would not be able to increase our proportionate ownership to the degree that Coke can, acting for us. If this less efficient procedure were followed, however, Berkshire would report far greater "earnings."

当可口可乐利用保留盈余来买回自家股份,该公司等于间接增加我们的持股比例,也就是此举让我认定这家公司是全世界最好的企业(当然可口可乐还将资金运用在很多加强公司利益的地方上),除了买回股份,可口可乐也可以将这些资金以股利的方式退还给股东,然后我们同样可以利用这笔钱买进更多可口可乐的股票,只是后面这种做法比较没有效率,因为如此还要支付额外的所得税,使得最后所得到的持股比例比前面的方式少一点,而讽刺的是要是利用后面的那种做法,Berkshire的帐面盈余可能还会更好看。

I believe the best way to think about our earnings is in terms of "look-through" results, calculated as follows: Take $250 million, which is roughly our share of the 1990 operating earnings retained by our investees; subtract $30 million, for the incremental taxes we would have owed had that $250 million been paid to us in dividends; and add the remainder, $220 million, to our reported operating earnings of $371 million. Thus our 1990 "look-through earnings" were about $590 million.

我个人相信最好的方式是利用透视的方法来衡量Berkshire的盈余,2亿5,000万美元大概是我们在1990年可以从被投资公司那边未分配到的营业利润,扣除3,000万的额外股利所得税,再将剩下的2亿2,000万美元加到本来的帐列盈余3亿7,100万,所得的5亿9,000万大概就是我们经过透视的真正盈余。

As I mentioned last year, we hope to have look-through earnings grow about 15% annually. In 1990 we substantially exceeded that rate but in 1991 we will fall far short of it. Our Gillette preferred has been called and we will convert it into common stock on April 1. This will reduce reported earnings by about $35 million annually and look-through earnings by a much smaller, but still significant, amount. Additionally, our media earnings - both direct and look-through - appear sure to decline. Whatever the results, we will post you annually on how we are doing on a look-through basis.
就像我去年曾经提到的,我希望我们的透视盈余每年都能够成长15%,在1990年我们确实大幅超越这个比率,但1991年结果却差很多,我们在吉列的可转换特别股投资已经被赎回,我们将在4月1日把它们转为普通股投资,虽然这将会使得我们每年的帐面盈余减少3,500万,透视盈余也会跟着减少,另外我们在媒体事业的直接与透视盈余也可能下滑,但不论如何,我们每年还是会向大家报告透视盈余的计算结果。
Non-Insurance Operations非保险营运

Take another look at the figures on page 51, which aggregate the earnings and balance sheets of our non-insurance operations. After-tax earnings on average equity in 1990 were 51%, a result that would have placed the group about 20th on the 1989 Fortune 500.

看看52页的那些数字,亦即我们非保险事业的盈余与资产负债加总,1990年的平均股东权益报酬率是51%,这个获利能力在1989年的财星五百大可以排在前20名。

Two factors make this return even more remarkable. First, leverage did not produce it: Almost all our major facilities are owned, not leased, and such small debt as these operations have is basically offset by cash they hold. In fact, if the measurement was return on assets - a calculation that eliminates the effect of debt upon returns -our group would rank in Fortune's top ten.

还有两项因素使得这样的成绩显得更为出色,第一它们完全不靠融资杠杆,几乎所有的主要设备都是自有而不是向外面租的,仅有的负债可以由自有的现金完全抵销,事实上若讲到资产报酬率,亦即扣除负债对于盈余的影响,我们非保险事业甚至可以排在前10名。

Equally important, our return was not earned from industries, such as cigarettes or network television stations, possessing spectacular economics for all participating in them. Instead it came from a group of businesses operating in such prosaic fields as furniture retailing, candy, vacuum cleaners, and even steel warehousing. The explanation is clear: Our extraordinary returns flow from outstanding operating managers, not fortuitous industry economics.
同样重要的是我们的获利并不是来自于像香烟或是电视台这些拥有特殊经济型态的产业,相反地它们是来自于一些再平凡不过的产业,诸如家具零售、糖果、吸尘器甚至是钢铁仓储等,这样的解释很明白,我们得来不易的报酬主要是靠优秀杰出的经理人后天的努力而非先天的产业环境优势。
Let's look at the larger operations:让我们来看看其中比较大的营运

It was a poor year for retailing - particularly for big-ticket items - but someone forgot to tell Ike Friedman at Borsheim's. Sales were up 18%. That's both a same-stores and all-stores percentage, since Borsheim's operates but one establishment.

去年对零售业来说算是相当惨淡的一年,尤其是单价高的东西,不过大家可能是忘了提醒在波仙珠宝店Ike Friedman这项事实,导致他店里的业绩逆势成长了18%,这是单店也是全店的数字,自从波仙仅此一家别无分号的老店开幕以来就是如此。

But, oh, what an establishment! We can't be sure about the fact (because most fine-jewelry retailers are privately owned) but we believe that this jewelry store does more volume than any other in the U.S., except for Tiffany's New York store.

喔!超厉害的一家店,我们实在不太敢相信这是事实,(因为大部分最高级的珠宝店多是私人拥有),但我们却相信这家店除了纽约的Tiffany之外,全美其它所有的珠宝店没有一家比得上它。

Borsheim's could not do nearly that well if our customers came only from the Omaha metropolitan area, whose population is about 600,000. We have long had a huge percentage of greater Omaha's jewelry business, so growth in that market is necessarily limited. But every year business from non-Midwest customers grows dramatically. Many visit the store in person. A large number of others, however, buy through the mail in a manner you will find interesting.

波仙的客户群若只有大奥玛哈都会区600万人口的话,生意可能没有办法做的那么大,长久以来我们在奥玛哈地区的占有率一直就很高,不过这部份的成长潜力实在是有限,所幸每年来自非中西部地区的生意都大幅成长,很多都是客户自己慕名而来单独上门,但还有一大部分是透过相当有趣的邮购方式购买我们的产品。

These customers request a jewelry selection of a certain type and value - say, emeralds in the $10,000 -$20,000 range - and we then send them five to ten items meeting their specifications and from which they can pick. Last year we mailed about 1,500 assortments of all kinds, carrying values ranging from under $1,000 to hundreds of thousands of dollars.

这些客户大多指定要一定品质与价位的珠宝,例如1万到2万美元的绿宝石,之后我们会送上五到十个符合他们要求的样品供他们做挑选,去年我们总共寄出超过1,500种组合,每种组合的价值从1,000美元到几十万美元不等。

The selections are sent all over the country, some to people no one at Borsheim's has ever met. (They must always have been well recommended, however.) While the number of mailings in 1990 was a record, Ike has been sending merchandise far and wide for decades. Misanthropes will be crushed to learn how well our "honor-system" works: We have yet to experience a loss from customer dishonesty.

这些产品被分送到全美各地,有些人是波仙素未谋面的,(当然他们必须要经过别人郑重的推荐),虽然这个数量在1990年达到高峰,但事实Ike在几十年以前就开始这样的创举,厌世者在得知我们所实施的荣誉制度可能会崩溃,截至目前为止我们还没有因为客户的不诚实而遭受损失。

We attract business nationwide because we have several advantages that competitors can't match. The most important item in the equation is our operating costs, which run about 18% of sales compared to 40% or so at the typical competitor. (Included in the 18% are occupancy and buying costs, which some public companies include in "cost of goods sold.") Just as Wal-Mart, with its 15% operating costs, sells at prices that high-cost competitors can't touch and thereby constantly increases its market share, so does Borsheim's. What works with diapers works with diamonds.

我们之所以能够吸引全美各地的生意上门主要是因为我们有几项优势是其它竞争对手所无法比拟的,其中最重要的一项就是经营的成本,相较于同业的40%的高比率,波仙的营业成本大概是营业额的18%(这包含持有与买进成本,有些公开发行的大公司还把他们列在销货成本项下),就像是Wal-Mart的营业费用率只有15%,因此可以以其它高成本竞争者无法达到的价位销售,从而持续地增加其市场占有率,波仙也是如此,同样的方式除了卖尿布以外,换做于卖钻石一样管用。

Our low prices create huge volume that in turn allows us to carry an extraordinarily broad inventory of goods, running ten or more times the size of that at the typical fine-jewelry store. Couple our breadth of selection and low prices with superb service and you can understand how Ike and his family have built a national jewelry phenomenon from an Omaha location.

由于价格低廉所以销售数量也相当大,因此我们可以备有各式各样的产品存货,比起其它店规模与数量甚至超过十倍之多,除了种类齐全、价格低廉之外,再加上我们贴心的服务,这也是为什么Ike与他的家庭可以在奥玛哈这个小地方创造出全美闻名的珠宝传奇。

And family it is. Ike's crew always includes son Alan and sons-in-law Marvin Cohn and Donald Yale. And when things are busy - that's often - they are joined by Ike's wife, Roz, and his daughters, Janis and Susie. In addition, Fran Blumkin, wife of Louie (Chairman of Nebraska Furniture Mart and Ike's cousin), regularly pitches in. Finally, you'll find Ike's 89-year-old mother, Rebecca, in the store most afternoons, Wall Street Journal in hand. Given a family commitment like this, is it any surprise that Borsheim's runs rings around competitors whose managers are thinking about how soon 5 o'clock will arrive?
真是虎父无犬子,Ike的团队总少不了他儿子Alan与女婿Marvin和Donald,而且要是生意忙不过来的话,Ike的老婆Roz跟他的女儿们Janis与Susie还会跳进来帮忙,另外Fran Blumkin-Louie的老婆(内布拉斯加家具店的老板-Ike的侄子),有时也会插花帮忙,最后大家绝对不要忘了还有高龄89岁的老祖母Rebecca,每天下午都会手拿华尔街日报坐镇店里,能够有一个家族像这样的投入,也难怪他们可以轻松击败那些由每天只等五点下班的专业经理人所经营的店。
While Fran Blumkin was helping the Friedman family set records at Borsheim's, her sons, Irv and Ron, along with husband Louie, were setting records at The Nebraska Furniture Mart. Sales at our one-and-only location were $159 million, up 4% from 1989. Though again the fact can't be conclusively proved, we believe NFM does close to double the volume of any other home furnishings store in the country.

当Fran Blumkin帮助Friedman家族创造波仙珠宝店的记录时,她的先生Louie再搭配儿子Irv与Ron,同时也在内布拉斯加家具店创造记录,1990年单店的营业额1.59亿美元,较前一年度增加4%,虽然没有精确的统计数字,但我们相信NFM的销售量最少是全美其它同业的两倍以上。

The NFM formula for success parallels that of Borsheim's. First, operating costs are rock-bottom - 15% in 1990 against about 40% for Levitz, the country's largest furniture retailer, and 25% for Circuit City Stores, the leading discount retailer of electronics and appliances. Second, NFM's low costs allow the business to price well below all competitors. Indeed, major chains, knowing what they will face, steer clear of Omaha. Third, the huge volume generated by our bargain prices allows us to carry the broadest selection of merchandise available anywhere.

NFM成功的方程式与波仙十分的相近,首先经营成本实在是有够低,1990年相较于全美最大家具零售商Levitz的40%与家用电器折扣量贩店Circuit City的25%,NFM竟只有15%,第二也由于成本低,所以NFM的产品订价就可以比竞争同业低许多,事实上许多通路商也很清楚这一点,所以他们唯一的做法就是尽量远离奥玛哈地区,第三便宜的价格导致销量大好,从而可以让我们备有更多别处所看不到,种类齐全的产品。

Some idea of NFM's merchandising power can be gleaned from a recent report of consumer behavior in Des Moines, which showed that NFM was Number 3 in popularity among 20 furniture retailers serving that city. That may sound like no big deal until you consider that 19 of those retailers are located in Des Moines, whereas our store is 130 miles away. This leaves customers driving a distance equal to that between Washington and Philadelphia in order to shop with us, even though they have a multitude of alternatives next door. In effect, NFM, like Borsheim's, has dramatically expanded the territory it serves - not by the traditional method of opening new stores but rather by creating an irresistible magnet that employs price and selection to pull in the crowds.

有关NFM的商品魔力可以从最近Des Moines地区的消费者行为调查报告中看出端倪,NFM在该地区所有的20家家具零售商当中排名第三,这讯息乍听之下或许没什么了不得,但你可知道其它19家都位在Des Moines,除了NFM离该地区足足有130英哩远,这距离代表当地的居民虽然在附近有更多的选择,却还是情愿大老远开车走相当从华盛顿到费城的距离,只为了买我们的产品,事实上NFM就像波仙一样,急速地扩张其版图范围,靠的不是传统地展店模式,而是利用价格与种类散发出强烈的磁场,吸引客户远道而来。

Last year at the Mart there occurred an historic event: I experienced a counterrevelation. Regular readers of this report know that I have long scorned the boasts of corporate executives about synergy, deriding such claims as the last refuge of scoundrels defending foolish acquisitions. But now I know better: In Berkshire's first synergistic explosion, NFM put a See's candy cart in the store late last year and sold more candy than that moved by some of the full-fledged stores See's operates in California. This success contradicts all tenets of retailing. With the Blumkins, though, the impossible is routine.

去年在家具店发生了一件重大的历史事件,使我经历了一次自我反省,经常阅读我们年报的读者应该都知道长久以来我对于企业主管动不动就强调的企业综效饬之以鼻,认为这不过是经营阶层对于愚蠢购并案所作的推托之词,不过现在我学乖了,在Berkshire我们创造出第一个企业综效,NFM在去年底决定在店内摆设喜斯的糖果车,结果所卖出的糖果甚至比加州的旗舰店还要多,这次的成功打破了所有零售业的定律,有B太太家族在,所有不可能的事都变成家常便饭。

At See's, physical volume set a record in 1990 - but only barely and only because of good sales early in the year. After the invasion of Kuwait, mall traffic in the West fell. Our poundage volume at Christmas dropped slightly, though our dollar sales were up because of a 5% price increase.

提到喜斯糖果,1990年的销售数量又创新高,不过成长相当有限且主要是拜年初业绩大好所致,在伊拉克入侵科威特之后,西方世界的交通活动大减,使得圣诞节的销售数量稍微下滑,虽然因为调整价格的关系,使得我们的营收成长了5%。

That increase, and better control of expenses, improved profit margins. Against the backdrop of a weak retailing environment, Chuck Huggins delivered outstanding results, as he has in each of the nineteen years we have owned See's. Chuck's imprint on the business - a virtual fanaticism about quality and service - is visible at all of our 225 stores.

销售金额增加加上营业费用控制得当,获利也有所改善,面对零售业大环境不佳的窘境,就如同过去他接手后的19年,Chuck Huggins还是一如往常递出漂亮的成绩单,Chuck对于品质与服务的坚持,在我们所有225家分店中都看得到。

One happening in 1990 illustrates the close bond between See's and its customers. After 15 years of operation, our store in Albuquerque was endangered: The landlord would not renew our lease, wanting us instead to move to an inferior location in the mall and even so to pay a much higher rent. These changes would have wiped out the store's profit. After extended negotiations got us nowhere, we set a date for closing the store.

1990年所发生的一件事最足以说明喜斯糖果与客户之间紧密的关系,经过15年的营运,我们在Albuquerque的分店经营发生危机,地主不愿与我们继续签订租约,反而希望我们搬到购物商场地点较差的摊位,并且还要调涨租金,如此一来将会把我们仅有的利润给吃光,经过协调不成,迫不得已我们贴出的即将停业的告示。

On her own, the store's manager, Ann Filkins, then took action, urging customers to protest the closing. Some 263 responded by sending letters and making phone calls to See's headquarters in San Francisco, in some cases threatening to boycott the mall. An alert reporter at the Albuquerque paper picked up the story. Supplied with this evidence of a consumer uprising, our landlord offered us a satisfactory deal. (He, too, proved susceptible to a counterrevelation.)

之后靠着店经理Ann Filkins个人的努力,采取行动敦促客户们像房东表达抗议,总计有263位客户写信或打电话到喜斯位于旧金山的总部,有的甚至扬言要抵制购物商场,甚至引起当地记者的注意,大幅刊载这项消息,有了众多客户的支持,房东最后终于妥协,提供一个令我们满意的条件(我想他应该也得到一个自我反省的机会教育)。

Chuck subsequently wrote personal letters of thanks to every loyalist and sent each a gift certificate. He repeated his thanks in a newspaper ad that listed the names of all 263. The sequel: Christmas sales in Albuquerque were up substantially.

事后Chuck对喜斯所有忠实的支持者一一写给每个人亲笔的感谢函,并在报纸上刊登所有263位客户名单,后续的发展是我们在Albuquerque分店的业绩大幅成长。
Charlie and I were surprised at developments this past year in the media industry, including newspapers such as our Buffalo News. The business showed far more vulnerability to the early stages of a recession than has been the case in the past. The question is whether this erosion is just part of an aberrational cycle - to be fully made up in the next upturn - or whether the business has slipped in a way that permanently reduces intrinsic business values.

查理跟我对于过去几年媒体事业的发展感到相当的意外,包含水牛城日报等报纸在内,这个产业现在因为经济衰退所受到的伤害,要比过去的经验要来的严重许多,问题是这种退化只是因为景气循环的暂时失调呢? (意味着下次景气翻扬会再回复),或是有可能一去不复返,企业的价值就此永远地流失掉。

Since I didn't predict what has happened, you may question the value of my prediction about what will happen. Nevertheless, I'll proffer a judgment: While many media businesses will remain economic marvels in comparison with American industry generally, they will prove considerably less marvelous than I, the industry, or lenders thought would be the case only a few years ago.

因为我没能预料到已经发生的事,所以你可能会质疑我预测未来的能力,尽管如此我还是提供个人的判断供大家参考,虽然相较于美国其它产业,媒体事业仍然维持一个不错的经济荣景,不过还是远不如我个人、产业界或是借款人几年前的预期。

The reason media businesses have been so outstanding in the past was not physical growth, but rather the unusual pricing power that most participants wielded. Now, however, advertising dollars are growing slowly. In addition, retailers that do little or no media advertising (though they sometimes use the Postal Service) have gradually taken market share in certain merchandise categories. Most important of all, the number of both print and electronic advertising channels has substantially increased. As a consequence, advertising dollars are more widely dispersed and the pricing power of ad vendors has diminished. These circumstances materially reduce the intrinsic value of our major media investments and also the value of our operating unit, Buffalo News - though all remain fine businesses.

媒体事业过去只所以能有如此优异的表现,并不是因为销售数量上的成长,而主要是靠所有的业者运用非比寻常的价格主导力量,不过时至今日,广告预算成长已大不如前,此外逐渐取得商品销售市场占有率的一般零售通路商根本就不做媒体广告(虽然有时他们会做邮购服务),最重要的是印刷与电子广告媒体通路大幅增加,因此广告预算被大幅度地分散稀释,广告商的议价能力逐渐丧失殆尽,这种的现象大大地减低我们所持有几个主要媒体事业投资与水牛城报纸的实际价值,虽然大体而言,他们都还算是不错的企业。

Notwithstanding the problems, Stan Lipsey's management of the News continues to be superb. During 1990, our earnings held up much better than those of most metropolitan papers, falling only 5%. In the last few months of the year, however, the rate of decrease was far greater.

不看这些问题,Stan Lipsey的新闻事业经营还是相当地杰出,1990年我们的盈余比起其它主要都会地区的报纸要好的多,大概只下滑了5%,虽然去年有几个月份,减少的幅度稍微大了一点。

I can safely make two promises about the News in 1991: (1) Stan will again rank at the top among newspaper publishers; and (2) earnings will fall substantially. Despite a slowdown in the demand for newsprint, the price per ton will average significantly more in 1991 and the paper's labor costs will also be considerably higher. Since revenues may meanwhile be down, we face a real squeeze.

展望1991年我可以很安心地向大家做出两个保证(1)Stan将会继续在所有的主要新闻出版者当中名列前茅(2)盈余一定会大幅缩水,因为虽然新闻印刷需求大幅缩水,但每吨印刷成本与劳工成本还是会大幅增加,再加上营收下降,面临两头挤压的窘境。

Profits may be off but our pride in the product remains. We continue to have a larger "news hole" - the portion of the paper devoted to news - than any comparable paper. In 1990, the proportion rose to 52.3% against 50.1% in 1989. Alas, the increase resulted from a decline in advertising pages rather than from a gain in news pages. Regardless of earnings pressures, we will maintain at least a 50% news hole. Cutting product quality is not a proper response to adversity.

获利虽然缩水,但我们对于产品依然感到骄傲,比起其它相同规模的报纸,我们拥有超高的新闻比率-新闻占报纸所有版面的比率,从1989年的50.1%增加为52.3%,只可惜增加的原因是因为广告量的减少,而不是新闻版面的增加,虽然受到盈余不小的压力,但我们还是会坚持50%的新闻比率,降低产品的品质不是身处逆境最好的应对方式。
he news at Fechheimer, our manufacturer and retailer of uniforms, is all good with one exception: George Heldman, at 69, has decided to retire. I tried to talk him out of it but he had one irrefutable argument: With four other Heldmans - Bob, Fred, Gary and Roger - to carry on, he was leaving us with an abundance of managerial talent.

接下来是我们制服的制造与销售商费区海默的好消息,除了一个坏消息之外,那就是69岁的George Heldman决定要退休,我曾经试着说服他,不过他有一项令人无法拒绝的理由,因为他留下了其它四位Heldmans家族的成员-Bob、Fred、Gary与Roger做接班。

Fechheimer's operating performance improved considerably in 1990, as many of the problems we encountered in integrating the large acquisition we made in 1988 were moderated or solved. However, several unusual items caused the earnings reported in the "Sources" table to be flat. In the retail operation, we continue to add stores and now have 42 in 22 states. Overall, prospects appear excellent for Fechheimer.

费区海默的经营绩效在1990年又大幅增进,因为先前在1988年大型的购并所产生的问题已逐渐获得解决,然而由于几个特殊的事件使得我们今年的盈余表现平平,在零售的部份,我们持续地拓展店面,目前在全美22个州拥有42家店,总言之,我们对于费区海默的前景仍然相当看好。
At Scott Fetzer, Ralph Schey runs 19 businesses with a mastery few bring to running one. In addition to overseeing three entities listed on page 6 - World Book, Kirby, and Scott Fetzer Manufacturing - Ralph directs a finance operation that earned a record $12.2 million pre-tax in 1990.

轮到史考特飞兹,Ralph Schey经营19家企业的手法比起一般人经营一个还娴熟,除了后面所叙述的三家企业-世界百科全书、寇比吸尘器与史考特飞兹制造公司之外,Ralph甚至还掌管一家年税前获利1,220万美元的财务公司。

Were Scott Fetzer an independent company, it would rank close to the top of the Fortune 500 in terms of return on equity, although it is not in businesses that one would expect to be economic champs. The superior results are directly attributable to Ralph.

如果史考特飞兹是一个独立的集团,它在财富五百大股东权益报酬率的排名一定能名列前茅,虽然它所处的产业很难出现耀眼的明星,但这些难得的成绩全都要归功于Ralph。

At World Book, earnings improved on a small decrease in unit volume. The costs of our decentralization move were considerably less in 1990 than 1989 and the benefits of decentralization are being realized. World Book remains far and away the leader in United States encyclopedia sales and we are growing internationally, though from a small base.

世界百科全书,虽然销售数量略微下滑,但盈余却变佳,1990年因分散决策中心的做法所须负担的成本较1989年减少,而其所带来的效益却逐渐显现,世界百科全书在全美百科全书销售中依旧独占鳌头,至于海外市场方面虽然基础规模较小,但却持续地成长中。

Kirby unit volume grew substantially in 1990 with the help of our new vacuum cleaner, The Generation 3, which was an unqualified success. Earnings did not grow as fast as sales because of both start-up expenditures and "learning-curve" problems we encountered in manufacturing the new product. International business, whose dramatic growth I described last year, had a further 20% sales gain in 1990. With the aid of a recent price increase, we expect excellent earnings at Kirby in 1991.

受惠于新款的真空吸尘器,寇比在1990年的销售数量大增,第三代的推出无疑是一大胜利,由于先期开发成本与新产品制造所面临的学习曲线问题,使得获利增加不若营收成长的幅度,海外市场方面相较于去年爆炸性的成长,今年再度有20%的成长,而由于最近产品价格再度调涨,我们预期寇比在1991年的获利应该会更好。

Within the Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group, Campbell Hausfeld, its largest unit, had a particularly fine year. This company, the country's leading producer of small and medium-sized air compressors, achieved record sales of $109 million, more than 30% of which came from products introduced during the last five years.

至于史考特飞兹制造公司部份,最大的单位Campbell Hausfeld今年的表现特别好,它是全美中小型空气压缩机的领导品牌,年度营业额创下1.09亿美元的新高,其中有30%的营收系来自于最近五年新推出的产品。

In looking at the figures for our non-insurance operations, you will see that net worth increased by only $47 million in 1990 although earnings were $133 million. This does not mean that our managers are in any way skimping on investments that strengthen their business franchises or that promote growth. Indeed, they diligently pursue both goals.

在看我们非保险业的营运数字时,大家可能会好奇为何我们年度的盈余有1.33亿美元,但净值却只增加了4,700万美元呢? 这并不代表我们的经理人用任何方法来掩盖其公司的经济实力或成长潜力,事实上他们无不努力追求这些目标。

But they also never deploy capital without good reason. The result: In the past five years they have funneled well over 80% of their earnings to Charlie and me for use in new business and investment opportunities.

不过他们也从不会毫无理由地浪费资金,过去五年以来他们将所赚得的80%盈余送回母公司,交给查理跟我运用在新的事业与投资机会之上。
Insurance Operations保险业营运

Shown below is an updated version of our usual table presenting key figures for the property-casualty insurance industry:

下表是产物意外险业的最新的几项重要指数

Yearly Change Combined Ratio Yearly Change Inflation Ratein Premiums After Policyholder in Incurred Measured byWritten (%) Dividends Losses (%) GNP Deflator (%)


1981
 
1982 .
 
1983
 
1984
 
1985
 
1986
 
1987
 
1988
 
1989 (Revised)
 
1990(Est.)
 

3.8
 
3.7
 
5.0
 
8.5
 
22.1
 
22.2
 
9.4
 
4.4
 
3.2
 
4.5
 

106.0
 
109.6
 
112.0
 
118.0
 
116.3
 
108.0
 
104.6
 
105.4
 
109.2
 
109.8
 

6.5
 
8.4
 
6.8
 
16.9
 
16.1
 
13.5
 
7.8
 
5.5
 
7.7
 
4.1
 

9.6
 
6.5
 
3.8
 
3.8
 
3.0
 
2.6
 
3.1
 
3.3
 
4.1
 
5.0
 

Source: A.M. Best Co.

The combined ratio represents total insurance costs (losses incurred plus expenses) compared to revenue from premiums: A ratio below 100 indicates an underwriting profit, and one above 100 indicates a loss. The higher the ratio, the worse the year. When the investment income that an insurer earns from holding policyholders' funds ("the float") is taken into account, a combined ratio in the 107 - 111 range typically produces an overall breakeven result, exclusive of earnings on the funds provided by shareholders.

综合比率代表保险的总成本(理赔损失加上费用)占保费收入的比例,比率在100以下代表有承保的损失,在100以上则代表有承保的获利综合比率代表的是保险的总成本(损失加上费用)占保费收入的比率,100以下代表会有承销利益,100以上代表会有承销损失,若把持有保费收入浮存金(扣除股东权益部份所产生的盈余)所产生的投资收益列入考量,损益两平的范围大概是在107-111之间。

      For the reasons laid out in previous reports, we expect the industry's incurred losses to grow at an average of 10% annually, even in periods when general inflation runs considerably lower. (Over the last 25 years, incurred losses have in reality grown at a still faster rate, 11%.) If premium growth meanwhile materially lags that 10% rate, underwriting losses will mount, though the industry's tendency to under-reserve when business turns bad may obscure their size for a time.

基于前几次年报所说明的理由,即使是通货膨胀在这几年来相对温和,我们预期保险业每年损失增加的比率约在10%左右,若是保费收入成长没有到达10%以上,损失一定会增加,(事实上过去25年以来,理赔损失系以11%的速度在成长),虽然保险公司在景气不好时,会习惯性地将损失暂时隐藏起来。

Last year premium growth fell far short of the required 10% and underwriting results therefore worsened. (In our table, however, the severity of the deterioration in 1990 is masked because the industry's 1989 losses from Hurricane Hugo caused the ratio for that year to be somewhat above trendline.) The combined ratio will again increase in 1991, probably by about two points.

去年保费收入的成长远低于最基本的10%要求,承保成绩可想而知会继续恶化, (不过在这张表上,1990年恶化的程度因为1989年发生Hugo飓风钜额损失而被略微掩盖),1991年的综合比率将会再度恶化,有可能会增加2个百分点以上。

Results will improve only when most insurance managements become so fearful that they run from business, even though it can be done at much higher prices than now exist. At some point these managements will indeed get the message: The most important thing to do when you find yourself in a hole is to stop digging. But so farthat point hasn't gotten across: Insurance managers continue to dig - sullenly but vigorously.

虽然以现在的市场状况保险业者大可以用比现在更高的价格来作生意,但营运结果却只可能在所有的保险公司主管因为恐惧而远离市场时才有可能好转,就某种程度而言,这些经理人应该已经收到了一些讯息,当你发现自己深陷洞中最重要的一件事就是不要再挖了,不过这个临界点显然还没到,许多保险公司虽然不甘愿但还是用力地在挖洞。

The picture would change quickly if a major physical or financial catastrophe were to occur. Absent such a shock, one to two years will likely pass before underwriting losses become large enough to raise management fear to a level that would spur major price increases. When that moment arrives, Berkshire will be ready - both financially and psychologically - to write huge amounts of business.

还好这种情况可能在发生重大的天然灾害或金融风暴后很快地改变,但若是没有这类事件发生,可能还要再等一、两年,直到所有的保险公司受不了钜额的承保损失,才有可能迫使经理人大幅提高保费,而等那个时刻到来时,Berkshire一定会作好准备,不论是在财务上或是心理上,等着接下大笔大笔的保单。

In the meantime, our insurance volume continues to be small but satisfactory. In the next section of this report we will give you a framework for evaluating insurance results. From that discussion, you will gain an understanding of why I am so enthusiastic about the performance of our insurance manager, Mike Goldberg, and his cadre of stars, Rod Eldred, Dinos Iordanou, Ajit Jain, and Don Wurster.

在此同时,我们的保费收入虽然很少但还是处于可以接受的范围,在下一段报告中我会告诉大家如何去衡量保险公司的绩效表现,看完之后你就会明了,为何我对我们的保险事业经理人,包含Mike Goldberg与他的明星团队Rod Eldred、Dinos Lordanou、Ajit Jalin与Don Wurster的表现会感到如此满意了。

In assessing our insurance results over the next few years, you should be aware of one type of business we are pursuing that could cause them to be unusually volatile. If this line of business expands, as it may, our underwriting experience will deviate from the trendline you might expect: In most years we will somewhat exceed expectations and in an occasional year we will fall far below them.

在衡量我们保险事业过去几年的经营绩效时,大家必须特别注意因为我们所追求的生意形态而造成经营结果的波动,若是这类型的生意扩张,事实上这很有可能,则我们的承保结果可能会与一般产业趋势有很大的差异,大部分的时候,我们的成绩会超乎大家的预期,但很有可能在某一年度又大幅落后在产业标准之下。

The volatility I predict reflects the fact that we have become a large seller of insurance against truly major catastrophes ("super-cats"), which could for example be hurricanes, windstorms or earthquakes. The buyers of these policies are reinsurance companies that themselves are in the business of writing catastrophe coverage for primary insurers and that wish to "lay off," or rid themselves, of part of their exposure to catastrophes of special severity. Because the need for these buyers to collect on such a policy will only arise at times of extreme stress - perhaps even chaos - in the insurance business, they seek financially strong sellers. And here we have a major competitive advantage: In the industry, our strength is unmatched.

我预估的波动主要是反应在我们即将成为真正超大型意外灾害保单(又称霹雳猫)承保人的事实之上,这些灾害有可能是飓风、风暴或是地震,这类保单的购买者大多是接受一般保险业者分散风险的再保公司,由于他们自己本身也要分散或是卸下部份单一重要灾害的风险,而由于这些保险公司主要是希望在发生若干重大的意外后,在一片混乱之中还能有可以依靠的对象,所以在选择投保对象时,首重的就是财务实力,而这正是我们最主要的竞争优势,在这个业界,我们坚强的实力是别人所比不上的。

A typical super-cat contract is complicated. But in a plain- vanilla instance we might write a one-year, $10 million policy providing that the buyer, a reinsurer, would be paid that sum only if a catastrophe caused two results: (1) specific losses for the reinsurer above a threshold amount; and (2) aggregate losses for the insurance industry of, say, more than $5 billion. Under virtually all circumstances, loss levels that satisfy the second condition will also have caused the first to be met.

典型的霹雳猫合约相当的复杂,不过以一个最简单的例子来说,我们可能签下一年期,1,000万美元的保单,其中规定再保公司在灾害造成两种状况下才有可能得到理赔,(1)再保公司的损失超过一定的门槛(2)整个保险业界的总损失超过一定的门槛,假设是50亿美元,只是通常在第二种条件符合时,第一个条件也会达到标准。

For this $10 million policy, we might receive a premium of, say, $3 million. Say, also, that we take in annual premiums of $100 million from super-cat policies of all kinds. In that case we are very likely in any given year to report either a profit of close to $100 million or a loss of well over $200 million. Note that we are not spreading risk as insurers typically do; we are concentrating it. Therefore, our yearly combined ratio on this business will almost never fall in the industry range of 100 - 120, but will instead be close to either zero or 300%.

对于这种1,000万的保单,我们收取的保费可能会在300万左右,假设我们一年收到所有的霹雳猫保费收入为1亿美元,则有可能某些年度我们可以认列将近1亿美元的利益,但也有可能在单一年度要认列2亿美元的损失,值得注意的是我们不像其它保险公司是在分散风险,相反地我们是将风险集中,因此在这一部份,我们的综合比率不像一般业者会介于100-120之间,而是有可能会介于0-300之间。

Most insurers are financially unable to tolerate such swings. And if they have the ability to do so, they often lack the desire. They may back away, for example, because they write gobs of primary property insurance that would deliver them dismal results at the very time they would be experiencing major losses on super- cat reinsurance. In addition, most corporate managements believe that their shareholders dislike volatility in results.

当然有许多业者无法承受这样大幅的变动,而且就算有能力可以做到,他们的意愿也不会太高,他们很可能在吃下一大笔保单之后,因为灾害发生一时必须承担大额的损失而被吓跑,此外大部分的企业管理阶层会认为他们背后的股东应该不喜欢变动太大。

We can take a different tack: Our business in primary property insurance is small and we believe that Berkshire shareholders, if properly informed, can handle unusual volatility in profits so long as the swings carry with them the prospect of superior long-term results. (Charlie and I always have preferred a lumpy 15% return to a smooth 12%.)

不过我们采取的方向就不同了,我们在初级产险市场的业务相当少,但我们相信Berkshire的股东,若事先经过沟通,应该可以接受这种获利波动较大,只要最后长期的结果能够令人满意就可以的经营结果,(查理跟我总是喜欢变动的15%更胜于固定的12%)。

We want to emphasize three points: (1) While we expect our super-cat business to produce satisfactory results over, say, a decade, we're sure it will produce absolutely terrible results in at least an occasional year; (2) Our expectations can be based on little more than subjective judgments - for this kind of insurance, historical loss data are of very limited value to us as we decide what rates to charge today; and (3) Though we expect to write significant quantities of super-cat business, we will do so only at prices we believe to be commensurate with risk. If competitors become optimistic, our volume will fall. This insurance has, in fact, tended in recent years to be woefully underpriced; most sellers have left the field on stretchers.

我们有三点必须要强调(1)我们预期霹雳猫的业务长期来讲,假设以10年为期,应该可以获得令人满意的结果,当然我们也知道在这其中的某些年度成绩可能会很惨(2)我们这样的预期并非是基于客观的判断,对于这样的保险业务,历史的资料对于我们在做订价决策时并没有太大的参考价值(3)虽然我们准备签下大量的霹雳猫保单,但有一个很重要的前提那就是价格必须要能够与所承担的风险相当,所以若我们的竞争对手变得乐观积极,那么我们的量就会马上减少,事实上过去几年市场价格有点低的离谱,这使得大部分的参与者都被用担架抬离场。

At the moment, we believe Berkshire to be the largest U.S. writer of super-cat business. So when a major quake occurs in an urban area or a winter storm rages across Europe, light a candle for us.

在此同时,我们相信Berkshire将会成为全美最大的霹雳猫承保公司,所以要是那天都会地区发生大地震或是发生席卷欧陆地区的风暴时,请点亮蜡烛为我们祈祷。
Measuring Insurance Performance衡量保险业的表现

In the previous section I mentioned "float," the funds of others that insurers, in the conduct of their business, temporarily hold. Because these funds are available to be invested, the typical property-casualty insurer can absorb losses and expenses that exceed premiums by 7% to 11% and still be able to break even on its business. Again, this calculation excludes the earnings the insurer realizes on net worth - that is, on the funds provided by shareholders.

在前段文章我曾提到浮存金-也就是保险业者在从事业务时,所暂时持有的资金,因为这些资金可以用在投资之上,所以产物意外险公司即使在损失与费用超过保费收入7%到11%,仍能自行吸收达到损益两平,当然这要扣除保险业者本身的净值,也就是股东自有资金所产生的获利。

However, many exceptions to this 7% to 11% range exist. For example, insurance covering losses to crops from hail damage produces virtually no float at all. Premiums on this kind of business are paid to the insurer just prior to the time hailstorms are a threat, and if a farmer sustains a loss he will be paid almost immediately. Thus, a combined ratio of 100 for crop hail insurance produces no profit for the insurer.

当然7%到11%的范围还是有许多例外情况,例如保险业者承保谷物冰雹伤害损失几乎没有浮存金的贡献,保险业者通常是在冰雹即将来临之前才收到保费收入,而只要其中有任何一位农夫发生损失就要马上支付赔偿金,因此即使谷物冰雹保险的综合比率为100,保险业者也赚不了半毛钱。

At the other extreme, malpractice insurance covering the potential liabilities of doctors, lawyers and accountants produces a very high amount of float compared to annual premium volume. The float materializes because claims are often brought long after the alleged wrongdoing takes place and because their payment may be still further delayed by lengthy litigation. The industry calls malpractice and certain other kinds of liability insurance "long- tail" business, in recognition of the extended period during which insurers get to hold large sums that in the end will go to claimants and their lawyers (and to the insurer's lawyers as well).

另外一个极端的例子,执行业务过失保险-一种专门提供给医师、律师与会计师分散可能责任风险的保险,较之每年收到的保费收入,这部份险种的浮存金就很高,这种浮存金之所以很重要的原因在于理赔申请案通常会在业务过失发生很长一段时间之后才会提出,而且真正理赔的时点也会因冗长的法律诉讼程序结束后才会执行,保险业界统称业务过失保险与其它特定种类的责任保险为"长尾巴业务"意思是说保险业者在将理赔金支付给申请人跟他的律师(或甚至是保险公司的律师)之前,可以持有这一大笔的资金相当长的一段时间。

In long-tail situations a combined ratio of 115 (or even more) can prove profitable, since earnings produced by the float will exceed the 15% by which claims and expenses overrun premiums. The catch, though, is that "long-tail" means exactly that: Liability business written in a given year and presumed at first to have produced a combined ratio of 115 may eventually smack the insurer with 200, 300 or worse when the years have rolled by and all claims have finally been settled.

像这种长尾巴业务,通常即使综合比率高达115(或更高)都还可能有获利,因为在索赔与费用发生之前的那一段时间利用浮存金所赚的利润甚至会超过15%,但重点是所谓的长尾巴顾名思义,就是在某一年度承接的责任保险保单之时,假设会有115的综合比率,但结果到最后尾大不掉,经过多年的纠缠,终于和解的结果,有可能让保险业者承担200、300或是更糟的综合比率。

The pitfalls of this business mandate an operating principle that too often is ignored: Though certain long-tail lines may prove profitable at combined ratios of 110 or 115, insurers will invariably find it unprofitable to price using those ratios as targets. Instead, prices must provide a healthy margin of safety against the societal trends that are forever springing expensive surprises on the insurance industry. Setting a target of 100 can itself result in heavy losses; aiming for 110 - 115 is business suicide.

这项业务一定要特别注意一项时常令人忽略的经营原则的陷阱,虽然部份长尾巴业务在110到115的综合比率之间仍可以获利,但若是保险业者依此比率来订定保费价格的话很可能会亏大钱,所以保费价格必须要有一个安全的边际空间以防止当今总是会让保险业有昂贵的意外蹦出来的社会趋势,将综合比率设在100一定会产生重大的损失,将目标锁定在110-115之间则无异是自杀的行为。

All of that said, what should the measure of an insurer's profitability be? Analysts and managers customarily look to the combined ratio - and it's true that this yardstick usually is a good indicator of where a company ranks in profitability. We believe a better measure, however, to be a comparison of underwriting loss to float developed.

说了那么多,到底该如何衡量一家保险公司的获利能力呢? 分析师与经理人通常习惯性的会去看综合比率,当然在我们要看一家保险公司是否赚钱时,这项比率是一个很好的正确指针,但我们认为还有一项数字是更好的衡量标准,那就是承保损失与浮存金的比率。

This loss/float ratio, like any statistic used in evaluating insurance results, is meaningless over short time periods: Quarterly underwriting figures and even annual ones are too heavily based on estimates to be much good. But when the ratio takes in a period of years, it gives a rough indication of the cost of funds generated by insurance operations. A low cost of funds signifies a good business; a high cost translates into a poor business.

这种损失/浮存金比率跟其它保险业常用的绩效衡量统计数字一样,必须要有一段相当长的时间才有意义,单季或甚至是单一年度的数字,会因为估计的成份太浓而无参考价值,但是只要时间一拉长,这个比率就可以告诉我们保险营运所产生浮存金的资金成本,若资金成本低就代表这是一家好公司,相反地就是一家烂公司。

On the next page we show the underwriting loss, if any, of our insurance group in each year since we entered the business and relate that bottom line to the average float we have held during the year. From this data we have computed a "cost of funds developed from insurance."

下一页是我们进入保险业后,每年的承保损失统计(若有的话),以及每年平均持有的浮存金数量,从这个表我们可以很轻易地算出保险事业所产生的浮存金其资金成本是多少。

(1) (2) Yearend Yield Underwriting Approximate on Long-Term Loss Average Float Cost of Funds Govt. Bonds (In $ Millions) (Ratio of 1 to 2)


1967
 
profit $17.3 less than zero 5.50%
 
1979
 
profit 227.3 less than zero 10.08%
 

1968 .
 
profit 19.9 less than zero 5.90%
 
1980
 
profit 237.0 less than zero 11.94%
 

1969
 
profit 23.4 less than zero 6.79%
 
1981
 
profit 228.4 less than zero 13.61%
 

1970
 
$0.37 32.4 1.14% 6.25%
 
1982
 
21.56 220.6 9.77% 10.64%
 

1971
 
profit 52.5 less than zero 5.81%
 
1983
 
33.87 231.3 14.64% 11.84%
 

1972
 
profit 69.5 less than zero 5.82%
 
1984
 
48.06 253.2 18.98% 11.58%
 

1973
 
profit 73.3 less than zero 7.27%
 
1985
 
44.23 390.2 11.34% 9.34%
 

1974
 
7.36 79.1 9.30% 8.13%
 
1986
 
55.84 797.5 7.00% 7.60%
 

1975
 
11.35 87.6 12.96% 8.03%
 
1987
 
55.43 1,266.7 4.38% 8.95%
 

1976 .
 
profit 102.6 less than zero 7.30%
 
1988
 
11.08 1,497.7 0.74% 9.00%
 

1977
 
profit 139.0 less than zero 7.97%
 
1989
 
24.40 1,541.3 1.58% 7.97%
 

1978
 
profit 190.4 less than zero 8.93%
 
1990
 
26.65 1,637.3 1.63% 8.24%
 

 

The float figures are derived from the total of loss reserves, loss adjustment expense reserves and unearned premium reserves minus agents' balances, prepaid acquisition costs and deferred charges applicable to assumed reinsurance. At some insurers other items should enter into the calculation, but in our case these are unimportant and have been ignored.

浮存金的数字是将所有的损失准备、损失费用调整准备与未赚取保费加总后,再扣除应付佣金、预付购并成本及相关再保递延费用,若是别的保险业者可能还有其它项目需要列入做计算,但因为这些科目在Berkshire并不重要,所以予以省略。

During 1990 we held about $1.6 billion of float slated eventually to find its way into the hands of others. The underwriting loss we sustained during the year was $27 million and thus our insurance operation produced funds for us at a cost of about 1.6%. As the table shows, we managed in some years to underwrite at a profit and in those instances our cost of funds was less than zero. In other years, such as 1984, we paid a very high price for float. In 19 years out of the 24 we have been in insurance, though, we have developed funds at a cost below that paid by the government.

在1990年我们大概持有16亿美元的浮存金,这些钱会慢慢地流到其它人的手中,当年度的承保损失约为2,600万美元,因此我们从保险营运所获得的资金,其成本约为1.6%,而就如同这张表所显示的,有些年度我们有承保获利,所以我们的资金成本甚至低于零,但是也有些年度,像1984年我们必须为浮存金支付相当高的成本,但是总计至今24个年度当中有19个年度,我们负担的资金成本甚至比美国政府发行债券的成本还低。

There are two important qualifications to this calculation. First, the fat lady has yet to gargle, let alone sing, and we won't know our true 1967 - 1990 cost of funds until all losses from this period have been settled many decades from now. Second, the value of the float to shareholders is somewhat undercut by the fact that they must put up their own funds to support the insurance operation and are subject to double taxation on the investment income these funds earn. Direct investments would be more tax-efficient.

这项计算式有两个重要的要求,首先胖女人漱口都很难听了,更何况还要她唱歌,除非等到这时间所发生的损失都已确定解决,否则我们不能确定1967年-1990年的资金成本到底是多少,第二浮存金对于股东的价值有点打折,因为股东们还必须投入相对的资金来支持保险事业的营运,同时这些资金所赚取的投资收益又必须面临双重的课税,相较之下直接投资的税负就少多了。

The tax penalty that indirect investments impose on shareholders is in fact substantial. Though the calculation is necessarily imprecise, I would estimate that the owners of the average insurance company would find the tax penalty adds about one percentage point to their cost of float. I also think that approximates the correct figure for Berkshire.

间接投资加诸在股东身上的租税惩罚事实上是相当重的,虽然计算公式铁定没办法做的很精确,但我估计对于这些保险事业的所有者来说,租税惩罚至少让他们增加一个百分点以上的资金成本,我想这个数字也适用于Berkshire之上。

Figuring a cost of funds for an insurance business allows anyone analyzing it to determine whether the operation has a positive or negative value for shareholders. If this cost (including the tax penalty) is higher than that applying to alternative sources of funds, the value is negative. If the cost is lower, the value is positive - and if the cost is significantly lower, the insurance business qualifies as a very valuable asset.

分析保险事业的资金成本使得任何人都可以据此判断这家公司的营运对于股东到底是正面的还是负面的,若是这项成本(包含租税惩罚)高于其它替代性的资金来源,其价值就是负的,若是成本更低,那么对股东便能产生正面的价值,而若是成本远低于一般水准,那么这个事业就是一项相当有价值的资产。

So far Berkshire has fallen into the significantly-lower camp. Even more dramatic are the numbers at GEICO, in which our ownership interest is now 48% and which customarily operates at an underwriting profit. GEICO's growth has generated an ever-larger amount of funds for investment that have an effective cost of considerably less than zero. Essentially, GEICO's policyholders, in aggregate, pay the company interest on the float rather than the other way around. (But handsome is as handsome does: GEICO's unusual profitability results from its extraordinary operating efficiency and its careful classification of risks, a package that in turn allows rock-bottom prices for policyholders.)

到目前为止,Berkshire算是资金成本相当低的那类,虽然我们拥有48%股权的GEICO的比率更好,且通常每年都享有承保获利,GEICO藉由不断地成长提供越来越多的资金以供投资,而且它的资金成本还远低于零成本以下,意思是说GEICO的保单持有人不但要先付保费给公司而且还要支付利息,(但就像有人又帅又有才干,GEICO非凡的获利能力导因于公司经营的效率与对风险的严格分类,如此使得保户也可享受超低价格的保单)。

Many well-known insurance companies, on the other hand, incur an underwriting loss/float cost that, combined with the tax penalty, produces negative results for owners. In addition, these companies, like all others in the industry, are vulnerable to catastrophe losses that could exceed their reinsurance protection and take their cost of float right off the chart. Unless these companies can materially improve their underwriting performance - and history indicates that is an almost impossible task - their shareholders will experience results similar to those borne by the owners of a bank that pays a higher rate of interest on deposits than it receives on loans.

在另外一方面,许多知名的保险公司,在考量承保损失/浮存金成本,再加上租税惩罚之后,事实上让股东产生负的报酬,此外这些公司像其它业者一样,相当容易受到大型灾害的伤害,在扣除再保部份所得到的保护之后,资金成本率还是有可能升高到无以复加的地步,而除非这些公司能够大幅改善其承保的成绩,历史的经验显示这是项不可能的任务,这些股东很可能会和吸收较高的存款利息支出,却只能收到较低的借款利息收入的银行股东一样的下场。

All in all, the insurance business has treated us very well. We have expanded our float at a cost that on the average is reasonable, and we have further prospered because we have earned good returns on these low-cost funds. Our shareholders, true, have incurred extra taxes, but they have been more than compensated for this cost (so far) by the benefits produced by the float.

总的来说,保险营运给我们的回报算是相当不错的了,我们的保险浮存金以合理的资金成本率持续增加,而靠着这些低成本的资金赚取更高的投资报酬使我们的事业蒸蒸日上,确实我们的股东必须负担额外的税负,但大家从这样低的资金成本所获得的利益却补回更多(至少到目前为止是如此)。

A particularly encouraging point about our record is that it was achieved despite some colossal mistakes made by your Chairman prior to Mike Goldberg's arrival. Insurance offers a host of opportunities for error, and when opportunity knocked, too often I answered. Many years later, the bills keep arriving for these mistakes: In the insurance business, there is no statute of limitations on stupidity.

尤其有更令人振奋的一点,这些记录还包含本人之前所犯下一些重大的错误,在Mike Goldberg接手后,应该会有更好的成绩,保险往往会有一大堆让你发生错误的机会,而通常在这些机会敲门时,我都会响应,以致于经过那么多年之后,到现在我们还必须为我以前所犯的那些错误付出代价,在保险业愚蠢的程度是没有上限的。

The intrinsic value of our insurance business will always be far more difficult to calculate than the value of, say, our candy or newspaper companies. By any measure, however, the business is worth far more than its carrying value. Furthermore, despite the problems this operation periodically hands us, it is the one - among all the fine businesses we own - that has the greatest potential.

我们保险事业的实际价值永远比其它事业如糖果或是报纸事业难以估计,但是不管用任何计算方法,保险事业的价值一定远高于其帐面价值,更重要的是虽然保险业让我们三不五时会出状况,但这行业却是我们现在所有不错的事业当中,最有成长潜力的。
Marketable Securities有价证券投资

Below we list our common stock holdings having a value of over $100 million. A small portion of these investments belongs to subsidiaries of which Berkshire owns less than 100%.
下表是我们超过一亿美元以上的普通股投资,一部份的投资系属于Berkshire关系企业所持有)。

Shares Company Cost Market  (000s omitted) 12/31/90

3,000,000 Capital Cities/ABC, Inc. ............ $ 517,500 $1,377,375

46,700,000 The Coca-Cola Co. ................... 1,023,920 2,171,550

2,400,000 Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp. ... 71,729 117,000

6,850,000 GEICO Corp. ......................... 45,713 1,110,556

1,727,765 The Washington Post Company ......... 9,731 342,097

5,000,000 Wells Fargo & Company ............... 289,431 289,375

Lethargy bordering on sloth remains the cornerstone of our investment style: This year we neither bought nor sold a share of five of our six major holdings. The exception was Wells Fargo, a superbly-managed, high-return banking operation in which we increased our ownership to just under 10%, the most we can own without the approval of the Federal Reserve Board. About one-sixth of our position was bought in 1989, the rest in 1990.

树濑天生特有的懒散正代表着我们的投资模式,今年我们没有增加也没有处分任何持股,除了Wells Fargo这家拥有良好的经营团队,并享有相当高的股东权益报酬率的银行,所以我们将持股比率增加到10%左右,这是我们可以不必向联准会申报的最高上限,其中六分之一是在1989年买进,剩下的部份则是在1990年增加。

The banking business is no favorite of ours. When assets are twenty times equity - a common ratio in this industry - mistakes that involve only a small portion of assets can destroy a major portion of equity. And mistakes have been the rule rather than the exception at many major banks. Most have resulted from a managerial failing that we described last year when discussing the "institutional imperative:" the tendency of executives to mindlessly imitate the behavior of their peers, no matter how foolish it may be to do so. In their lending, many bankers played follow-the-leader with lemming-like zeal; now they are experiencing a lemming-like fate.

银行业并不是我们的最爱,因为这个行业的特性是资产约为股权的20倍,这代表只要资产发生一点问题就有可能把股东权益亏光光,而偏偏大银行出问题早已变成是常态而非特例,许多情况是管理当局的疏失,就像是去年度我们曾提到的系统规范-也就是经营主管会不自主的模仿其它同业的做法,不管这些行为有多愚蠢,在从事放款业务时,许多银行业者也都有旅鼠那种追随领导者的行为倾向,所以现在他们也必须承担像旅鼠一样的命运。

Because leverage of 20:1 magnifies the effects of managerial strengths and weaknesses, we have no interest in purchasing shares of a poorly-managed bank at a "cheap" price. Instead, our only interest is in buying into well-managed banks at fair prices.

因为20比1的比率,使得所有的优势与缺点所造成的影响对会被放大,我们对于用便宜的价格买下经营不善的银行一点兴趣都没有,相反地我们希望能够以合理的价格买进一些经营良好的银行。

With Wells Fargo, we think we have obtained the best managers in the business, Carl Reichardt and Paul Hazen. In many ways the combination of Carl and Paul reminds me of another - Tom Murphy and Dan Burke at Capital Cities/ABC. First, each pair is stronger than the sum of its parts because each partner understands, trusts and admires the other. Second, both managerial teams pay able people well, but abhor having a bigger head count than is needed. Third, both attack costs as vigorously when profits are at record levels as when they are under pressure. Finally, both stick with what they understand and let their abilities, not their egos, determine what they attempt. (Thomas J. Watson Sr. of IBM followed the same rule: "I'm no genius," he said. "I'm smart in spots - but I stay around those spots.")

在Wells Fargo,我想我们找到银行界最好的经理人Carl Reichardt与Paul Hazen,在许多方面这两个人的组合使我联想到另外一对搭档,那就是资本城/ABC的Tom Murphy与Dan Burke,首先两个人加起来的力量都大于个别单打独斗,因为每个人都了解、信任并尊敬对方,其次他们对于有才能的人从不吝啬,但也同时厌恶冗员过多,第三尽管公司获利再好,他们控制成本的努力不曾稍减,最后两者都坚持自己所熟悉的,让他们的能力而非自尊来决定成败,就像IBM的Thomas Watson曾说:「我不是天才,我只是有点小聪明,不过我却充分运用这些小聪明。」

Our purchases of Wells Fargo in 1990 were helped by a chaotic market in bank stocks. The disarray was appropriate: Month by month the foolish loan decisions of once well-regarded banks were put on public display. As one huge loss after another was unveiled - often on the heels of managerial assurances that all was well - investors understandably concluded that no bank's numbers were to be trusted. Aided by their flight from bank stocks, we purchased our 10% interest in Wells Fargo for $290 million, less than five times after-tax earnings, and less than three times pre-tax earnings.

我们是在1990年银行股一片混乱之间买进Wells Fargo的股份的,这种失序的现象是很合理的,几个月来有些原本经营名声不错的银行,其错误的贷款决定却一一被媒体揭露,随着一次又一次庞大的损失数字被公布,银行业的诚信与保证也一次又一次地被践踏,渐渐地投资人越来越不敢相信银行的财务报表数字,趁着大家出脱银行股之际,我们却逆势以2.9亿美元,五倍不到的本益比(若是以税前获利计算,则本益比甚至不到三倍),买进Wells Fargo 10%的股份。

Wells Fargo is big - it has $56 billion in assets - and has been earning more than 20% on equity and 1.25% on assets. Our purchase of one-tenth of the bank may be thought of as roughly equivalent to our buying 100% of a $5 billion bank with identical financial characteristics. But were we to make such a purchase, we would have to pay about twice the $290 million we paid for Wells Fargo. Moreover, that $5 billion bank, commanding a premium price, would present us with another problem: We would not be able to find a Carl Reichardt to run it. In recent years, Wells Fargo executives have been more avidly recruited than any others in the banking business; no one, however, has been able to hire the dean.

Wells Fargo实在是相当的大,帐面资产高达560亿美元,股东权益报酬率高达20%,资产报酬率则为1.25%,买下他10%的股权相当于以买下一家50亿美元资产100%股权,但是真要有这样条件的银行,其价码可能会是2.9亿美元的一倍以上,此外就算真的可以买得到,我们同样也要面临另外一个问题,那就是找不到像Carl Reichardt这样的人才来经营,近几年来,从Wells Fargo出身的经理人一直广受各家银行同业所欢迎,但想要请到这家银行的老宗师可就不是一件容易的事了。

Of course, ownership of a bank - or about any other business - is far from riskless. California banks face the specific risk of a major earthquake, which might wreak enough havoc on borrowers to in turn destroy the banks lending to them. A second risk is systemic - the possibility of a business contraction or financial panic so severe that it would endanger almost every highly-leveraged institution, no matter how intelligently run. Finally, the market's major fear of the moment is that West Coast real estate values will tumble because of overbuilding and deliver huge losses to banks that have financed the expansion. Because it is a leading real estate lender, Wells Fargo is thought to be particularly vulnerable.

当然拥有一家银行的股权,或是其它企业也一样,绝非没有风险,像加州的银行就因为位于地震带而必须承担客户受到大地震影响而还不出借款的风险,第二个风险是属于系统性的,也就是严重的企业萧条或是财务风暴导致这些高财务杠杆经营的金融机构,不管经营的再好都有相当的危机,最后市场当时主要的考虑点是美国西岸的房地产因为供给过多而崩盘的风险,连带使得融资给这些扩张建案的银行承担钜额的损失,而也因为Wells Fargo就是市场上最大的不动产借款银行,一般咸认它最容易受到伤害。

None of these eventualities can be ruled out. The probability of the first two occurring, however, is low and even a meaningful drop in real estate values is unlikely to cause major problems for well-managed institutions. Consider some mathematics: Wells Fargo currently earns well over $1 billion pre-tax annually after expensing more than $300 million for loan losses. If 10% of all $48 billion of the bank's loans - not just its real estate loans - were hit by problems in 1991, and these produced losses (including foregone interest) averaging 30% of principal, the company would roughly break even.

以上所提到的风险都很难加以排除,当然第一点与第二点的可能性相当低,而且即使是房地产大幅的下跌,对于经营绩效良好的银行也不致造成太大的问题,我们可以简单地算一下,Wells Fargo现在一年在提列3亿美元的损失准备之后,税前还可以赚10亿美元以上,今天假若该银行所有的480亿借款中有10%在1991年发生问题,且估计其中有30%的本金将收不回来,必须全部转为损失(包含收不回来的利息),则在这种情况下,这家银行还是可以损益两平。

A year like that - which we consider only a low-level possibility, not a likelihood - would not distress us. In fact, at Berkshire we would love to acquire businesses or invest in capital projects that produced no return for a year, but that could then be expected to earn 20% on growing equity. Nevertheless, fears of a California real estate disaster similar to that experienced in New England caused the price of Wells Fargo stock to fall almost 50% within a few months during 1990. Even though we had bought some shares at the prices prevailing before the fall, we welcomed the decline because it allowed us to pick up many more shares at the new, panic prices.

若是真有一年如此,虽然我们认为这种情况发生的可能性相当低,我们应该还可以忍受,事实上在Berkshire选择购并或是投资一家公司,头一年不赚钱没有关系,只要以后每年能够有20%的股东权益报酬率,尽管如此,加州大地震使得投资人害怕新英格兰地区也会有同样的危险,导致Wells Fargo在1990年几个月间大跌50%以上,虽然在股价下跌前我们已买进一些股份,但股价下跌使我们可以开心地用更低的价格捡到更多的股份。

Investors who expect to be ongoing buyers of investments throughout their lifetimes should adopt a similar attitude toward market fluctuations; instead many illogically become euphoric when stock prices rise and unhappy when they fall. They show no such confusion in their reaction to food prices: Knowing they are forever going to be buyers of food, they welcome falling prices and deplore price increases. (It's the seller of food who doesn't like declining prices.) Similarly, at the Buffalo News we would cheer lower prices for newsprint - even though it would mean marking down the value of the large inventory of newsprint we always keep on hand - because we know we are going to be perpetually buying the product.

以长期投资作为终生目标的投资人对于股市波动也应该采取同样的态度,千万不要因为股市涨就欣喜若狂,股市跌就如丧考妣,奇怪的是他们对于食物的价格就一点都不会搞错,很清楚知道自己每天一定会买食物,当食物价格下跌时,他们可高兴的很,(要烦恼的应该是卖食物的人),同样的在水牛城报纸我们期望印刷成本能够降低,虽然这代表我们必须将帐列的新闻印刷存货价值向下调整,因为我们很清楚,我们必须一直买进这些产品。

Identical reasoning guides our thinking about Berkshire's investments. We will be buying businesses - or small parts of businesses, called stocks - year in, year out as long as I live (and longer, if Berkshire's directors attend the seances I have scheduled). Given these intentions, declining prices for businesses benefit us, and rising prices hurt us.

同样的原则也适用在Berkshire的投资之上,只要我还健在(若我死后,Berkshire的董事会愿意透过我所安排的降神会接受我的指示,则期间或许更长久),我们会年复一年买下企业或是企业的一部份-也就是股票,也因此企业的价格下跌对我们会更有利,反之则可能会对我们不利。

The most common cause of low prices is pessimism - some times pervasive, some times specific to a company or industry. We want to do business in such an environment, not because we like pessimism but because we like the prices it produces. It's optimism that is the enemy of the rational buyer.

股价不振最主要的原因是悲观的情绪,有时是全面性的,有时则仅限于部份产业或是公司,我们很期望能够在这种环境下做生意,不是因为我们天生喜欢悲观,而是如此可以得到便宜的价格买进更多好的公司,乐观是理性投资人最大的敌人。

None of this means, however, that a business or stock is an intelligent purchase simply because it is unpopular; a contrarian approach is just as foolish as a follow-the-crowd strategy. What's required is thinking rather than polling. Unfortunately, Bertrand Russell's observation about life in general applies with unusual force in the financial world: "Most men would rather die than think. Many do."

当然以上所述并不代表不受欢迎或注意的股票或企业就是好的投资标的,反向操作有可能与群众心理一样的愚蠢,真正重要的是独立思考而不是投票表决,不幸的是Bertrand Russell对于人性的观察同样地也适用于财务投资之上,「大多数的人宁死也不愿意去思考!」。

Our other major portfolio change last year was large additions to our holdings of RJR Nabisco bonds, securities that we first bought in late 1989. At yearend 1990 we had $440 million invested in these securities, an amount that approximated market value. (As I write this, however, their market value has risen by more than $150 million.)

我们去年其它主要的投资组合的变动就是增加RJR Nabisco的债券,我们是在1989年开始买进这种有价证券,到了1990年底我们的投资金额约为4.4亿美元,与目前的市价相当(不过在撰写年报的同时,他们的市价已增加了1.5亿美元)。

Just as buying into the banking business is unusual for us, so is the purchase of below-investment-grade bonds. But opportunities that interest us and that are also large enough to have a worthwhile impact on Berkshire's results are rare. Therefore, we will look at any category of investment, so long as we understand the business we're buying into and believe that price and value may differ significantly. (Woody Allen, in another context, pointed out the advantage of open-mindedness: "I can't understand why more people aren't bi-sexual because it doubles your chances for a date on Saturday night.")

就像我们很少买进银行股,同样地我们也很少买进投资等级以下的债券,不过能够引起我们兴趣的投资机会,同时规模大到足以对Berkshire有相当影响力的投资机会实在是不多,因此我们愿意尝试各种不同的投资工具,只要我们对于即将买进的投资标的有相当的了解,同时价格与价值有相当大的差距(伍迪艾伦也另一句台词用来形容开明的好处︰「我实在不了解为什么有那么多人排斥双性恋,人们在星期六夜晚至少可以有多一倍的机会能够约会?」)。

In the past we have bought a few below-investment-grade bonds with success, though these were all old-fashioned "fallen angels" - bonds that were initially of investment grade but that were downgraded when the issuers fell on bad times. In the 1984 annual report we described our rationale for buying one fallen angel, the Washington Public Power Supply System.

在过去我们也曾成功地投资了好几次投资等级以下的债券,虽然他们多是传统上所谓的失翼的天使,意思是指原先发行时属于投资等级但后来因为公司出现问题而被降等,在1984年的年报中我们也曾经提到过买进华盛顿公用电力系统债券的原因。

A kind of bastardized fallen angel burst onto the investment scene in the 1980s - "junk bonds" that were far below investment- grade when issued. As the decade progressed, new offerings of manufactured junk became ever junkier and ultimately the predictable outcome occurred: Junk bonds lived up to their name. In 1990 - even before the recession dealt its blows - the financial sky became dark with the bodies of failing corporations.

不过到了1980年代大量假冒的失翼的天使充斥着整个投资界,也就是所谓的垃圾债券,这些债券在发行时企业本身的信用评等就不佳,十几年下来垃圾债券越来越垃圾,最后真的变成名符其实的垃圾,到了1990年代在经济衰退引发债权危机之前,整个投资界的天空已布满着这些假冒失翼天使的尸体。

The disciples of debt assured us that this collapse wouldn't happen: Huge debt, we were told, would cause operating managers to focus their efforts as never before, much as a dagger mounted on the steering wheel of a car could be expected to make its driver proceed with intensified care. We'll acknowledge that such an attention-getter would produce a very alert driver. But another certain consequence would be a deadly - and unnecessary - accident if the car hit even the tiniest pothole or sliver of ice. The roads of business are riddled with potholes; a plan that requires dodging them all is a plan for disaster.

迷信这些债券的门徒一再强调不可能发生崩盘的危机,钜额的债务会迫使公司经理人更专注于经营,就像是一位驾驶开着一辆轮胎上插着一只匕首的破车,大家可以确定这位驾驶一定会小心翼翼地开车,当然我们绝对相信这位驾驶一定会相当小心谨慎,但是另外却还有一个变量必须克服,那就是只要车子碰到一个小坑洞或是一小片雪就可能造成致命的车祸,而偏偏在商业的道路上,遍布着各种坑坑洞洞,一个要求必须避开所有坑洞的计画实在是一个相当危险的计画。

In the final chapter of The Intelligent Investor Ben Graham forcefully rejected the dagger thesis: "Confronted with a challenge to distill the secret of sound investment into three words, we venture the motto, Margin of Safety." Forty-two years after reading that, I still think those are the right three words. The failure of investors to heed this simple message caused them staggering losses as the 1990s
began.

在葛拉罕智能型投资人的最后一章中,很强烈地驳斥这种匕首理论,如果要将稳健的投资浓缩成三字箴言,那就是安全边际,在读到这篇文章的42年后,我仍深深相信这三个字,没能注意到这个简单原则的投资人在1990年代开始就会慢慢尝到损失的痛苦。

At the height of the debt mania, capital structures were concocted that guaranteed failure: In some cases, so much debt was issued that even highly favorable business results could not produce the funds to service it. One particularly egregious "kill- 'em-at-birth" case a few years back involved the purchase of a mature television station in Tampa, bought with so much debt that the interest on it exceeded the station's gross revenues. Even if you assume that all labor, programs and services were donated rather than purchased, this capital structure required revenues to explode - or else the station was doomed to go broke. (Many of the bonds that financed the purchase were sold to now-failed savings and loan associations; as a taxpayer, you are picking up the tab for this folly.)

在债务恐慌最高点的时候,资本结构注定导致失败的发生,有些公司的融资杠杆高到即使是再好的企业也无法负担,有一个特别惨、一出生就夭折的案例,就是一个坦帕湾地方电视台的购并案,这个案子一年的利息负担甚至还超过他一整年的营收,也就是说即使所有的人工、节目与服务都不须成本,且营收也能有爆炸性的成长,这家电视台还是会步上倒闭的命运,(许多债券都是由现在大多倒闭的储贷机构买进,所以身为纳税义务人的你,等于间接替这些愚蠢的行为买单)。

All of this seems impossible now. When these misdeeds were done, however, dagger-selling investment bankers pointed to the "scholarly" research of academics, which reported that over the years the higher interest rates received from low-grade bonds had more than compensated for their higher rate of default. Thus, said the friendly salesmen, a diversified portfolio of junk bonds would produce greater net returns than would a portfolio of high-grade bonds. (Beware of past-performance "proofs" in finance: If history books were the key to riches, the Forbes 400 would consist of librarians.)

现在看起来这种情况当然不太可能再发生,当这些错误的行为发生时,专门贩卖匕首的投资银行家纷纷把责任推给学术单位,表示研究显示低等级债券所收到的利息收入应该可以弥补投资人所承担可能收不回本金的风险,因此推断说好心的业务员所介绍给客户的高收益债券将给客户带来比高等级债券更好的收益,(特别要小心财务学上过去的统计资料实证,若历史资料是致富之钥,那么富比士四百大富豪不都应该是图书馆员吗?)

There was a flaw in the salesmen's logic - one that a first- year student in statistics is taught to recognize. An assumption was being made that the universe of newly-minted junk bonds was identical to the universe of low-grade fallen angels and that, therefore, the default experience of the latter group was meaningful in predicting the default experience of the new issues. (That was an error similar to checking the historical death rate from Kool-Aid before drinking the version served at Jonestown.)

不过这些业务员的逻辑有一个漏洞,这是统计系的新生都知道的,那就是假设所有新发行的垃圾债券都与以前的失翼天使一样,也就是说前者还不出本金的机率与后者是一样的,(这种错误就像是在喝Jonestown的毒药之前,以过去的死亡率为参考)。

The universes were of course dissimilar in several vital respects. For openers, the manager of a fallen angel almost invariably yearned to regain investment-grade status and worked toward that goal. The junk-bond operator was usually an entirely different breed. Behaving much as a heroin user might, he devoted his energies not to finding a cure for his debt-ridden condition, but rather to finding another fix. Additionally, the fiduciary sensitivities of the executives managing the typical fallen angel were often, though not always, more finely developed than were those of the junk-bond-issuing financiopath.

这个世界在许多方面当然有很大的不同,对于开拓者来说,失翼天使的经理人无不渴望重新到投资等级的名单之上,,但是垃圾债券的经营者就全然不是那么一回事了,不思解决其为债务所苦的困境,反而偏好运用英雄式的行径,寻找暂时解脱之道,此外失翼天使忠诚的敏感特质通常比那些垃圾债券经营者要来的好的多。

Wall Street cared little for such distinctions. As usual, the Street's enthusiasm for an idea was proportional not to its merit, but rather to the revenue it would produce. Mountains of junk bonds were sold by those who didn't care to those who didn't think - and there was no shortage of either.

华尔街对于这样的差异根本就不在乎,通常华尔街关心的不是它到底有多少优缺点,而是它可以产生多少收入,成千上万的垃圾债券就是由这帮不在乎的人卖给那些不懂得思考之人。

Junk bonds remain a mine field, even at prices that today are often a small fraction of issue price. As we said last year, we have never bought a new issue of a junk bond. (The only time to buy these is on a day with no "y" in it.) We are, however, willing to look at the field, now that it is in disarray.

即使现在垃圾债券的市场价格只有发行价格的一点点,它还是个地雷区,就像是去年我们曾经说过的,我们从来不买新发行的垃圾债券,(唯一会买进的时点是没有y之时),不过趁现在市场一遍混乱,我们倒是愿意花点时间看看。

In the case of RJR Nabisco, we feel the Company's credit is considerably better than was generally perceived for a while and that the yield we receive, as well as the potential for capital gain, more than compensates for the risk we incur (though that is far from nil). RJR has made asset sales at favorable prices, has added major amounts of equity, and in general is being run well.

在RJR Nabisco这个案子我们认为这家公司的债信要比外界想象中好一点,同时我们感觉潜在的利益,应该可以弥补我们要承担的风险(虽然绝非无风险),RJR资产处份的价格还算不错,股东权益增加了许多,现在经营也渐上轨道了。

However, as we survey the field, most low-grade bonds still look unattractive. The handiwork of the Wall Street of the 1980s is even worse than we had thought: Many important businesses have been mortally wounded. We will, though, keep looking for opportunities as the junk market continues to unravel.

然而在我们看了市场以后发现,大部分低等级的债券还是不具吸引力,华尔街1980年代的技术比我们想象中差多了,许多重要生意都大受影响,不过我们还是会继续在垃圾债券市场中寻找好的投资机会。
Convertible Preferred Stocks可转换特别股

We continue to hold the convertible preferred stocks described in earlier reports: $700 million of Salomon Inc, $600 million of The Gillette Company, $358 million of USAir Group, Inc. and $300 million of Champion International Corp. Our Gillette holdings will be converted into 12 million shares of common stock on April 1. Weighing interest rates, credit quality and prices of the related common stocks, we can assess our holdings in Salomon and Champion at yearend 1990 as worth about what we paid, Gillette as worth somewhat more, and USAir as worth substantially less.

我们持续持有先前向各位报告过的可转换特别股,包括所罗门7亿美金、吉列6亿美金、美国航空3.58亿美金与冠军企业3亿美金。我们吉列的特别股将会在4月1日转换为1,200万股的普通股,在衡量利率、债信与普通股的价格之后,我们可以确信在所罗门与冠军企业的投资现值应该与我们当初的成本差不多,吉列的价值比成本高,至于美国航空的价值则远低于当初的投资成本。

In making the USAir purchase, your Chairman displayed exquisite timing: I plunged into the business at almost the exact moment that it ran into severe problems. (No one pushed me; in tennis parlance, I committed an "unforced error.") The company's troubles were brought on both by industry conditions and by the post-merger difficulties it encountered in integrating Piedmont, an affliction I should have expected since almost all airline mergers have been followed by operational turmoil.

在投资美国航空时,本人在下我真是抓对了时点,我几乎是在航空业爆发严重的问题之前,跳进去这个产业,(没有人强迫我,如同在网球场上,我把它形容做是非受迫性失误),美国航空问题的发生,导因于产业本身的状况与对Piedmont购并后所产生的后遗症,这点我应该要早该预料到,因为几乎所有的航空业购并案最后的结果都是一团混乱。

In short order, Ed Colodny and Seth Schofield resolved the second problem: The airline now gets excellent marks for service. Industry-wide problems have proved to be far more serious. Since our purchase, the economics of the airline industry have deteriorated at an alarming pace, accelerated by the kamikaze pricing tactics of certain carriers. The trouble this pricing has produced for all carriers illustrates an important truth: In a business selling a commodity-type product, it's impossible to be a lot smarter than your dumbest competitor.

在这不久之后,Ed Colodny与Seth Schofield解决了第二个难题,美国航空现在的服务受到好评,不过整个产业所面临的问题却越来越严重,自从我们开始投资之后,航空业的状况便很急遽地恶化,尤其再加上某些业者自杀性的杀价竞争,这样的结果导致所有的航空业者都面临一项残酷的事实,在销售制式化商品的产业之中,你很难比最笨的竞争对手聪明到哪里去。

However, unless the industry is decimated during the next few years, our USAir investment should work out all right. Ed and Seth have decisively addressed the current turbulence by making major changes in operations. Even so, our investment is now less secure than at the time I made it.

不过除非在未来几年内,航空业全面地崩溃,否则我们在美国航空的投资应该能够确保安全无虞,Ed与Seth很果决地在营运上做了一些重大的改变来解决目前营运所面临的问题,虽然如此,我们的投资现在的情况比起当初还是差了一点。

Our convertible preferred stocks are relatively simple securities, yet I should warn you that, if the past is any guide, you may from time to time read inaccurate or misleading statements about them. Last year, for example, several members of the press calculated the value of all our preferreds as equal to that of the common stock into which they are convertible. By their logic, that is, our Salomon preferred, convertible into common at $38, would be worth 60% of face value if Salomon common were selling at $22.80. But there is a small problem with this line of reasoning: Using it, one must conclude that all of the value of a convertible preferred resides in the conversion privilege and that the value of a non-convertible preferred of Salomon would be zero, no matter what its coupon or terms for redemption.

我们的可转换特别股算是相当单纯的投资工具,不过我还是必须警告各位,若是过去的经验有任何参考价值,大家可能还是会读到一些不正确或是误导的讯息,举例来说像去年,有几家报章杂志错误地将它们的价值与可以转换的普通股价格混为一谈,我们的所罗门特别股转换价格为38美元,根据它们的逻辑,由于所罗门普通股的现价为22.8美元,所以其可转换特别股的价值只有面额的60%,但这样的推论却有一个盲点,因为这样的说法表示所有的可转换特别股,其价值只在其所拥有的转换权利,至于所罗门不可转换的债券价值则为零,不管它所拥有的赎回条件为何。

The point you should keep in mind is that most of the value of our convertible preferreds is derived from their fixed-income characteristics. That means the securities cannot be worth less than the value they would possess as non-convertible preferreds and may be worth more because of their conversion options.

大家必须特别记住的一点是我们可转换特别股大部分的价值其实是来自于固定收益的特性,这意思是说这些有价证券的价值不可能低于一般不具转换权的特别股,相反地会因为它们拥有可转换的选择权而具有更高的价值。

I deeply regret having to end this section of the report with a note about my friend, Colman Mockler, Jr., CEO of Gillette, who died in January. No description better fitted Colman than "gentleman" - a word signifying integrity, courage and modesty. Couple these qualities with the humor and exceptional business ability that Colman possessed and you can understand why I thought it an undiluted pleasure to work with him and why I, and all others who knew him, will miss Colman so much.

很遗憾我必须在报告末段以我的好朋友Colman Mockler-吉列的CEO在今年一月过世做为结尾,除了「绅士」这个代表品格、勇气与谦和的字,没有其它字更能贴切形容Colman这个人,除了这些特质之外,再加上他所拥有的幽默与超凡的经营能力,所以大家应该可以想象与他共事是多么令人感到愉快的一件事,这也是为何包含我在内的许多人,会对他感到特别怀念的缘故。

A few days before Colman died, Gillette was richly praised in a Forbes cover story. Its theme was simple: The company's success in shaving products has come not from marketing savvy (though it exhibits that talent repeatedly) but has instead resulted from its devotion to quality. This mind-set has caused it to consistently focus its energies on coming up with something better, even though its existing products already ranked as the class of the field. In so depicting Gillette, Forbes in fact painted a portrait of Colman.

在Colman死之前几天,吉列受到富比士以封面故事大加赞扬,标题很简单,这家公司在刮胡刀产业的成功,不单单只靠行销手段(虽然他们一再展现这方面的能力),同时更源自于他们对于品质的追求,这种心理建设使得他们持续将精力摆在推出更新更好的产品之上,虽然现有的产品已是市场上最经典的,富比士对于吉列的形容,就好象是在描述Colman本人一样。
Help! Help!救命!救命!

Regular readers know that I shamelessly utilize the annual letter in an attempt to acquire businesses for Berkshire. And, as we constantly preach at the Buffalo News, advertising does work: Several businesses have knocked on our door because someone has read in these pages of our interest in making acquisitions. (Any good ad salesman will tell you that trying to sell something without advertising is like winking at a girl in the dark.)

熟悉的读者都知道我经常利用年报不顾廉耻地替Berkshire寻找合适的投资标的,此外我们也常常在水牛城报纸刊登广告征求投资标的,而如此的宣传做法确实也收到效果,有好几家企业收到我们相关的讯息后,上门前来(任何好的业务销售人员都会告诉你不靠广告卖东西就好象是在黑夜里对于女孩扎眼一样没有用)。

In Appendix B (on pages 26-27) I've reproduced the essence of a letter I wrote a few years back to the owner/manager of a desirable business. If you have no personal connection with a business that might be of interest to us but have a friend who does, perhaps you can pass this report along to him.

附录B是我回信给一位可能的卖方的摘要,若是你知道那家企业可能会是我们有兴趣的标的,同时你有认识的朋友在那家企业,欢迎你直接将这份资料送给他参考。

Here's the sort of business we are looking for:

(1) Large purchases (at least $10 million of after-tax earnings),

(2) Demonstrated consistent earning power (future projections are of little interest to us, nor are "turnaround" situations),

(3) Businesses earning good returns on equity while employing little or no debt,

(4) Management in place (we can't supply it),     (5) Simple businesses (if there's lots of technology, we won't understand it),

(6) An offering price (we don't want to waste our time or that of the seller by talking, even preliminarily, about a transaction when price is unknown).

以下就是我们想要找的企业条件

(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有一千万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并且甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)

We will not engage in unfriendly takeovers. We can promise complete confidentiality and a very fast answer - customarily within five minutes - as to whether we're interested. We prefer to buy for cash, but will consider issuing stock when we receive as much in intrinsic business value as we give.

我们不会进行敌意的购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟) ,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。

Our favorite form of purchase is one fitting the Blumkin- Friedman-Heldman mold. In cases like these, the company's owner- managers wish to generate significant amounts of cash, sometimes for themselves, but often for their families or inactive shareholders. At the same time, these managers wish to remain significant owners who continue to run their companies just as they have in the past. We think we offer a particularly good fit for owners with such objectives. We invite potential sellers to check us out by contacting people with whom we have done business in the past.

我们最喜欢的交易对象之一是像B太太- Heldman家族那样,公司经营者希望能马上有一大笔现金,不管是给自己、家人或是其它股东,最好这些经营者如往常一样能够继续留在公司,我想我们可以提供具有以上想法的经营者,一个满意的方式,我们也欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听。

Charlie and I frequently get approached about acquisitions that don't come close to meeting our tests: We've found that if you advertise an interest in buying collies, a lot of people will call hoping to sell you their cocker spaniels. A line from a country song expresses our feeling about new ventures, turnarounds, or auction-like sales: "When the phone don't ring, you'll know it's me."

另一方面查理跟我也常常接到一些不符合我们条件的询问,包括新事业、转机股、拍卖案以及最常见的中介案。我们发现如果你登广告要买牧羊犬,结果却有一大堆人打电话来要卖你长耳猎犬,对于这类的事业,有首乡村歌曲其中的一句歌词最能描述我们的感觉,「若电话不响,你就知道那是我」。

Besides being interested in the purchase of businesses as described above, we are also interested in the negotiated purchase of large, but not controlling, blocks of stock comparable to those we hold in Capital Cities, Salomon, Gillette, USAir, and Champion. We are not interested, however, in receiving suggestions about purchases we might make in the general stock market.

除了以上买下整家公司的购并案外,我们也会考虑买进一大部份不具控制权的股份,就像我们在资本城、所罗门、吉列、美国航空与冠军企业这几个Case一样的公司,不过对于一般直接从股票市场上买进股份的建议我们,则一点兴趣都没有。
Miscellaneous

其它事项

Ken Chace has decided not to stand for reelection as a director at our upcoming annual meeting. We have no mandatory retirement age for directors at Berkshire (and won't!), but Ken, at 75 and living in Maine, simply decided to cut back his activities.

Ken Chace决定从今年股东会起不再担任本公司的董事,在Berkshire我们没有强制董事退休的年龄限制(以后绝对也不会有),但是住在缅因州75岁的Ken还是决定减少自己在Berkshire的活动量。

Ken was my immediate choice to run the textile operation after Buffett Partnership, Ltd. assumed control of Berkshire early in 1965. Although I made an economic mistake in sticking with the textile business, I made no mistake in choosing Ken: He ran the operation well, he was always 100% straight with me about its problems, and he generated the funds that allowed us to diversify into insurance.

Ken是我在1965年透过巴菲特合伙入主Berkshire时,选择经营纺织事业的第一人选,虽然我在坚持纺织事业继续经营上做了错误的决策,但选择Ken却是正确的决定,他把公司经营的非常好,对于所面临的问题也是百分之百地坦诚,更重要的是他产生出足够让我们进军保险业的资金。

My wife, Susan, will be nominated to succeed Ken. She is now the second largest shareholder of Berkshire and if she outlives me will inherit all of my stock and effectively control the company. She knows, and agrees, with my thoughts on successor management and also shares my view that neither Berkshire nor its subsidiary businesses and important investments should be sold simply because some very high bid is received for one or all.

我的内人Susan将会被提名接替Ken担任董事,她个人现在是Berkshire第二大股东,而且要是她活的比我久的话,还会继承我个人所持有的股份,进而取得公司的控制权,她明了也完全同意我个人对于可能接替人选的想法,同时也认同不管是Berkshire本身或是旗下事业与主要的投资,都不会单纯地因为有人出高价要买,便轻易地对外出售。

I feel strongly that the fate of our businesses and their managers should not depend on my health - which, it should be added, is excellent - and I have planned accordingly. Neither my estate plan nor that of my wife is designed to preserve the family fortune; instead, both are aimed at preserving the character of Berkshire and returning the fortune to society.

我强烈地感觉Berkshire企业与经理人的命运不应该依赖在我个人的健康之上,当然若是因此可以加分会更好,为此我已做好的万全的计画,不管是我个人或是我内人的遗嘱都不打算将这些财产留给家族,相反地重点会放在如何保持Berkshire的特质,并将所有的财富回归给社会。

Were I to die tomorrow, you could be sure of three things: (1) None of my stock would have to be sold; (2) Both a controlling shareholder and a manager with philosophies similar to mine would follow me; and (3) Berkshire's earnings would increase by $1 million annually, since Charlie would immediately sell our corporate jet, The Indefensible (ignoring my wish that it be buried with me).

所以万一要是明天我突然死了,大家可以确定三件事(1)我在Berkshire的股份,一股都不会卖(2)继承我的所有权人与经理人一定会遵循我的投资哲学 (3)Berkshire的盈余会因为出售我个人的专用飞机-无可辩解号,每年可增加100万美元(不要管我希望让她陪葬的遗愿)。

About 97.3% of all eligible shares participated in Berkshire's 1990 shareholder-designated contributions program. Contributions made through the program were $5.8 million, and 2,600 charities were recipients.

大约有97.3%的有效股权参与1990年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约580万美元捐出的款项分配给2,600家慈善机构。

We suggest that new shareholders read the description of our shareholder-designated contributions program that appears on pages 54-55. To participate in future programs, you must make sure your shares are registered in the name of the actual owner, not in the nominee name of a broker, bank or depository. Shares not so registered on August 31, 1991 will be ineligible for the 1991 program.

我们敦促新加入的股东,仔细阅读年报上有关股东捐赠计画的详细内容,如果在未来年度内,你想要参加这类的计画,我们强烈建议你将股份登记在自己而不是受托人的名下,必须在1991年8月31日之前完成登记,才有权利参与1991年的捐赠计画。

In addition to the shareholder-designated contributions that Berkshire distributes, managers of our operating businesses make contributions, including merchandise, averaging about $1.5 million annually. These contributions support local charities, such as The United Way, and produce roughly commensurate benefits for our businesses.

Berkshire除了透过股东指定捐赠计画对外捐赠之外,我们旗下事业的经理人每年也会透过公司对外捐赠,包含商品在内每年平均金额约在150万美元左右。这些捐赠主要是赞助当地像是联合劝募等慈善团体,所得的效益应该与我们所捐出的相当。

However, neither our operating managers nor officers of the parent company use Berkshire funds to make contributions to broad national programs or charitable activities of special personal interest to them, except to the extent they do so as shareholders. If your employees, including your CEO, wish to give to their alma maters or other institutions to which they feel a personal attachment, we believe they should use their own money, not yours.

然而不管是旗下事业或是母公司的经理人在利用Berkshire的资金对外捐赠给全国性组织或特别利益团体时,都是以站在股东利益立场所应该做的,相对地若是你的员工也包含CEO在内,想要与其校友会或其它人建立个人关系的,我们认为他们最好是用自己的钱,而不是从你的口袋里掏钱。

The annual meeting this year will be held at the Orpheum Theater in downtown Omaha at 9:30 a.m. on Monday, April 29, 1991. Attendance last year grew to a record 1,300, about a 100-fold increase from ten years ago.

今年的股东会预计在1991年4月29日,星期一早上9点30分举行在Orpheum中心召开,去年股东会参加人数突破1,300人,大概是十年前的一百倍。

We recommend getting your hotel reservations early at one of these hotels: (1) The Radisson-Redick Tower, a small (88 rooms) but nice hotel across the street from the Orpheum; (2) the much larger Red Lion Hotel, located about a five-minute walk from the Orpheum; or (3) the Marriott, located in West Omaha about 100 yards from Borsheim's and a twenty minute drive from downtown. We will have buses at the Marriott that will leave at 8:30 and 8:45 for the meeting, and return after it ends.

我们建议大家最好先向以下旅馆预订房间(1)Radisson-Redick旅馆-就位在Orpheum中心对街拥有88个房间的一家小旅馆(2)较大一点的Red Lion旅馆-离Orpheum中心约五分钟路程,或是(3)Marriott位在奥玛哈西区,离波仙珠宝店约100公尺,开车到市中心约需20分钟,届时将会有巴士接送大家往返股东会会场。

Charlie and I always enjoy the meeting, and we hope you can make it. The quality of our shareholders is reflected in the quality of the questions we get: We have never attended an annual meeting anywhere that features such a consistently high level of intelligent, owner-related questions.

查理跟我一直都很喜欢开股东会,我也希望大家能够来参加,我们股东的素质可由大家所提出的问题看得出来,我们参加过很多股东会,但从来没有别的公司的股东像Berkshire的股东一样由高智能水准与经营者荣枯与共的股东组合。

An attachment to our proxy material explains how you can obtain the card you will need for admission to the meeting. Because weekday parking can be tight around the Orpheum, we have lined up a number of nearby lots for our shareholders to use. The attachment also contains information about them.

后面附有股东会开会投票的相关资料,跟各位解释如何拿到入场所许的识别证,因为开会当天会场不好停车,我们特地为大家预留了一些位置,附件也有相关说明供大家参考。

As usual, we will have buses to take you to Nebraska Furniture Mart and Borsheim's after the meeting and to take you to downtown hotels or to the airport later. I hope that you will allow plenty of time to fully explore the attractions of both stores. Those of you arriving early can visit the Furniture Mart any day of the week; it is open from 10 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. on Saturdays, and from noon to 5:30 p.m. on Sundays. While there, stop at the See's Candy cart and see for yourself the dawn of synergism at Berkshire.

一如往常,会后我们备有巴士带大家到内布拉斯加家具店与波仙珠宝店或是到饭店与机场,我希望大家能有多一点的时间好好探索这两家店的奥妙,当然早几天到的股东也可利用假日逛逛家具店,星期六从早上10点到下午5点30分,星期日则从中午开到下午5点30分,到那里时记得到喜斯糖果摊逛逛,看看Berkshire企业综效的初步成果。

Borsheim's normally is closed on Sunday, but we will open for shareholders and their guests from noon to 6 p.m. on Sunday, April 28. At our Sunday opening last year you made Ike very happy: After totaling the day's volume, he suggested to me that we start holding annual meetings quarterly. Join us at Borsheim's even if you just come to watch; it's a show you shouldn't miss.

波仙星期天通常不开门营业,但在股东会期间特别破例,4月28日星期天从中午开到下午6点,去年由于大家的卖力表现让Ike相当的开心,在看过那天的业绩数字之后,他建议我们最好能够每一季都召开股东会,今年记得到波仙去看看,就算不买也没有关系,那是一场你不能错过的秀。

Last year the first question at the annual meeting was asked by 11-year-old Nicholas Kenner, a third-generation shareholder from New York City. Nicholas plays rough: "How come the stock is down?" he fired at me. My answer was not memorable.

去年股东会第一个问题是由来自纽约11岁的Nicholas Kenner所提出,他们一家三代都是Berkshire的股东,一开场Nicholas就来硬的,:「为什么股价会下跌?」面对如此强大的火力,我的回答却不甚了了。

We hope that other business engagements won't keep Nicholas away from this year's meeting. If he attends, he will be offered the chance to again ask the first question; Charlie and I want to tackle him while we're fresh. This year, however, it's Charlie's turn to answer.

我希望今年Nicholas最好有其它的事要忙,不要来参加今年的股东会,若他真的出席了,他可能有机会再提出第一个问题,查理跟我都希望尽量不要碰到他,还好今年轮到查理先回答。

U. S. STEEL ANNOUNCES SWEEPING MODERNIZATION SCHEME*

    附录A

美国钢铁公司宣布全面更新计画

本文是葛拉罕于1936年所写未对外公开的讽刺性文章,由巴菲特于1954年提供

Myron C. Taylor, Chairman of U. S. Steel Corporation, today announced the long awaited plan for completely modernizing the world's largest industrial enterprise. Contrary to expectations, no changes will be made in the company's manufacturing or selling policies. Instead, the bookkeeping system is to be entirely revamped. By adopting and further improving a number of modern accounting and financial devices the corporation's earning power will be amazingly transformed. Even under the subnormal conditions of 1935, it is estimated that the new bookkeeping methods would have yielded a reported profit of close to $50 per share on the common stock. The scheme of improvement is the result of a comprehensive survey made by Messrs. Price, Bacon, Guthrie & Colpitts; it includes the following six points:

Myron C. Taylor-美国钢铁公司的董事长,今天宣布令人期待已久,有关全世界最大的制造公司的全面更新计画,与预期相反的,公司的制造或是销售政策全部没有变动,反而是会计帐务系统做了大幅度的调整,在采取一系列最新最好的现代会计与财务措施之后,公司的获利能力因而大幅增进,即使是在景气不佳的1935年,在采用新的会计制度下,估计每股盈余还是可以达到50美元的水准,这项改造计画是经由Messrs等人经过广泛的研究调查后制定的,其中主要包含六大点:

1. Writing down of Plant Account to Minus $1,000,000,000. 2. Par value of common stock to be reduced to 1¢. 3. Payment of all wages and salaries in option warrants. 4. Inventories to be carried at $1. 5. Preferred Stock to be replaced by non-interest bearing bonds redeemable at 50% discount. 6. A $1,000,000,000 Contingency Reserve to be established.

(1)将厂房价值减少到负的10亿美元 (2)普通股每股面额减到一美分 (3)以认股权的方式支付所有的薪水与奖金 (4)存货的帐面价值减为1美元 (5)原有特别股改成不必马上支付利息50%折价发行的公司债 (6)建立10亿美元的或有准备

The official statement of this extraordinary Modernization Plan follows in full:

以下就是这项全面更新计画的官方完整声明

The Board of Directors of U. S. Steel Corporation is pleased to announce that after intensive study of the problems arising from changed conditions in the industry, it has approved a comprehensive plan for remodeling the Corporation's accounting methods. A survey by a Special Committee, aided and abetted by Messrs. Price, Bacon, Guthrie & Colpitts, revealed that our company has lagged somewhat behind other American business enterprises in utilizing certain advanced bookkeeping methods, by means of which the earning power may be phenomenally enhanced without requiring any cash outlay or any changes in operating or sales conditions. It has been decided not only to adopt these newer methods, but to develop them to a still higher stage of perfection. The changes adopted by the Board may be summarized under six heads, as follows:

美国钢铁公司的董事会很高兴向大家宣布,在经过对产业界所面临的问题广泛地研究之后,我们已经核准了一项重新塑造公司会计制度的方案,一项由特别委员会主导并经Messrs等人协助之下完成的调查显示,我们公司在运用最先进的会计制度方面远远落后于其它美国企业,透过这样的做法,公司不必负担额外的支出、营业与销售政策也不必改变,就可以不费吹灰之力地大大改善获利能力,所以大家一致决定不但要立即跟进采用,而且还要将这项技术发展到淋漓尽致的境界,董事会所采用的做法,主要可以归纳为以下六点:

1. Fixed Assets to be written down to Minus $1,000,000,000.固定资产减为负的10亿美元

Many representative companies have relieved their income accounts of all charges for depreciation by writing down their plant account to $1. The Special Committee points out that if their plants are worth only $1, the fixed assets of U. S. Steel Corporation are worth a good deal less than that sum. It is now a well-recognized fact that many plants are in reality a liability rather than an asset, entailing not only depreciation charges, but taxes, maintenance, and other expenditures. Accordingly, the Board has decided to extend the write-down policy initiated in the 1935 report, and to mark down the Fixed Assets from $1,338,522,858.96 to a round Minus $1,000,000,000.

许多代表公司都已将其帐列厂房价值减为象征性的1美元,好让其损益表免于折旧费用沉重的负担,特别委员会指出如果它们的厂房只值1美元,那么美国钢铁的的固定资产比起它们来说还要少很多,事实上近来大家都承认一项事实,许多厂房对公司来说实际上是一种负债而不是资产,除了要摊提折旧之外,还要负担税金、维修及其它开支,因此董事会决定要从1935年开始将资产打销,从原先帐列1,338,522,858.96美元减少为负的1,000,000,000美元。

The advantages of this move should be evident. As the plant wears out, the liability becomes correspondingly reduced. Hence, instead of the present depreciation charge of some $47,000,000 yearly there will be an annual appreciation credit of 5%, or $50,000,000. This will increase earnings by no less than $97,000,000 per annum.

这样做法的效益相当明显,随着工厂逐渐折减,所代表的负债也相对地减少,因此以往每年4,700万的折旧费用不但可以免除,以后每年还可以有5,000万美元的折旧利益,一来一往等于让公司的获利至少增加9,700万美元。

2. Reduction of Par Value of Common Stock to 1¢, and 3. Payment of Salaries and Wages in Option Warrants.

将普通股面额减少到1美分。所有的薪资与奖金一律以认股权的方式发放。

Many corporations have been able to reduce their overhead expenses substantially by paying a large part of their executive salaries in the form of options to buy stock, which carry no charge against earnings. The full possibilities of this modern device have apparently not been adequately realized. The Board of Directors has adopted the following advanced form of this idea:

许多企业早已将本来应该支付给经营主管薪水奖金的大笔支出改以不必认列费用的股票认股权方式取代,这种现代化的创新做法很明显地还没有被充分运用,所以董事会决定采取一项更先进的做法。企业所有的员工将发给认购价为50美元的认股权作为薪资的替代,而普通股面额则减少到1美分。

The entire personnel of the Corporation are to receive their compensation in the form of rights to buy common stock at $50 per share, at the rate of one purchase right for each $50 of salary and/or wages in their present amounts. The par value of the common stock is to be reduced to 1¢. The almost incredible advantages of this new plan are evident from the following:

这项计画很明显的有下列好处:

A. The payroll of the Corporation will be entirely eliminated, a saving of $250,000,000 per annum, based on 1935 operations.
A公司将不再有任何的薪资支出,参考1935年的情况,每年估计将因此省下2.5亿美元。

B. At the same time, the effective compensation of all our employees will be increased several fold. Because of the large earnings per share to be shown on our common stock under the new methods, it is certain that the shares will command a price in the market far above the option level of $50 per share, making the readily realizable value of these option warrants greatly in excess of the present cash wages that they will replace.

B同时,所有员工的报酬将因此增加好几倍,因为在新的会计原则之下公司帐上显示的每股盈余将因此大增,从而使得公司的股价远高于认股权所设定的50美元认购价,于是所有的员工都将因为认股权的行使而受惠,所得到的报酬将远比他们原来领的现金收入要高的多。

C. The Corporation will realize an additional large annual profit through the exercise of these warrants. Since the par value of the common stock will be fixed at 1¢, there will be a gain of $49.99 on each share subscribed for. In the interest of conservative accounting, however, this profit will not be included in the income account, but will be shown separately as a credit to Capital Surplus.

C透过这些认股权的行使,公司因此还可以实现额外特别的年度利益,而由于我们将普通股面额设定为1美分,因此每认购一股便能产生49.99美元的利益,虽然就会计学保守的立场,这些利益可能无法显现在损益表之上,但却可以在资产负债表上以资本溢价的方式单独列示。

D. The Corporation's cash position will be enormously strengthened. In place of the present annual cash outgo of $250,000,000 for wages (1935 basis), there will be annual cash inflow of $250,000,000 through exercise of the subscription warrants for 5,000,000 shares of common stock. The Company's large earnings and strong cash position will permit the payment of a liberal dividend which, in turn, will result in the exercise of these option warrants immediately after issuance which, in turn, will further improve the cash position which, in turn, will permit a higher dividend rate -- and so on, indefinitely.

D企业的现金部位也会因此大大地增强,每年不但不再有2.5亿美元的薪资流出,透过行使500万股认股权的做法,每年还可以创造2.5亿美元的现金流入,公司惊人的获利能力加上坚强的现金部位将使得我们可以随心所欲地配发股利,然后我们又可以透过行使认股权的方式补强现金实力,之后又可以有更高的配股能力,如此一直循环下去。

4. Inventories to be carried at $1.

4.帐列存货价值调为1美元

Serious losses have been taken during the depression due to the necessity of adjusting inventory value to market. Various enterprises -- notably in the metal and cotton-textile fields -- have successfully dealt with this problem by carrying all or part of their inventories at extremely low unit prices. The U. S. Steel Corporation has decided to adopt a still more progressive policy, and to carry its entire inventory at $1. This will be effected by an appropriate write-down at the end of each year, the amount of said write-down to be charged to the Contingency Reserve hereinafter referred to.

在经济衰退时因为必须将存货价值调整至市价,公司可能会因此蒙受钜额的损失,因此许多公司,尤其是钢铁与纺织公司纷纷将其帐列存货价值压到相当低的程度,而成功地解决这方面的问题,有鉴于此美国钢铁公司决定采用一种更积极的做法,打算将存货价值一举压低到1美元的最低限度,在每年底都会进行这样的动作,将存货予以调整,差异的数字则全部摆到前面所提到的或有准备科目项下。

The benefits to be derived from this new method are very great. Not only will it obviate all possibility of inventory depreciation, but it will substantially enhance the annual earnings of the Corporation. The inventory on hand at the beginning of the year, valued at $1, will be sold during the year at an excellent profit. It is estimated that our income will be increased by means of this method to the extent of at least $150,000,000 per annum which, by a coincidence, will about equal the amount of the write-down to be made each year against Contingency Reserve.

这种新做法的好处相当的大,不但可以消除存货耗损的可能性,同时也可大大地增进公司每年的获利能力,每年初存货因为帐列价值只有1美元,所以将因出售而获得大笔的利益,经估计透过这种新会计方法的运用将可使我们每年至少增加1.5亿美元的收益,而碰巧的是这个数字与我们每年冲销的或许准备金额相当。

A minority report of the Special Committee recommends that Accounts Receivable and Cash also be written down to $1, in the interest of consistency and to gain additional advantages similar to those just discussed. This proposal has been rejected for the time being because our auditors still require that any recoveries of receivables and cash so charged off be credited to surplus instead of to the year's income. It is expected, however, that this auditing rule -- which is rather reminiscent of the horse-and-buggy days -- will soon be changed in line with modern tendencies. Should this occur, the minority report will be given further and favorable consideration.

特别委员会的一项报告建议为了维持一致性,应收帐款与约当现金最好也能够将帐面数字调整为1美元,同时也一样可以有先前所提的好处,但这样子的提案现在被驳回,因为我们的签证会计师认为,任何应收帐款或约当现金若冲回,最好还是先贷记原有科目,而不是直接作为损益表上的收入,但是我们也预期这种老掉牙的会计原则应该很快会更新,好与现代趋势做接轨,而等新原则一通过之后,我们一定会马上将这份报告的建议列为优先执行的方案。

5. Replacement of Preferred Stock by Non-Interest-Bearing Bonds Redeemable at 50% Discount.

5.将现有特别股改成不必马上支付利息50%折价发行的公司债。During the recent depression many companies have been able to offset their operating losses by including in income profits arising from repurchases of their own bonds at a substantial discount from par. Unfortunately the credit of U. S. Steel Corporation has always stood so high that this lucrative source of revenue has not hitherto been available to it. The Modernization Scheme will remedy this condition.

过去许多公司在面临景气不佳的时候,大都利用买回自己原先发行大幅折价的债券来弥补其营业上的损失,不幸的是由于美国钢铁公司的债信一向都还算不错,所以没有类似这样的油水可以趁机捞一笔,但现代更新计画解决了这样的难题。

It is proposed that each share of preferred stock be exchanged for $300 face value of non-interest-bearing sinking-fund notes, redeemable by lot at 50% of face value in 10 equal annual installments. This will require the issuance of $1,080,000,000 of new notes, of which $108,000,000 will be retired each year at a cost to the Corporation of only $54,000,000, thus creating an annual profit of the same amount.

报告建议原先发行的每一股特别股全部换成面额300美元不必支付利息的债券,并且可分为十期以面额的50%赎回,总计将要发行面额10.8亿美元的债券,每年有1.08亿美元到期,并由公司以5,400万美元的价格赎回,同时公司每年将可因此增加5,400万美元的获利。

Like the wage-and/or-salary plan described under 3. above, this arrangement will benefit both the Corporation and its preferred stockholders. The latter are assured payment for their present shares at 150% of par value over an average period of five years. Since short-term securities yield practically no return at present, the non-interest-bearing feature is of no real importance. The Corporation will convert its present annual charge of $25,000,000 for preferred dividends into an annual bond-retirement profit of $54,000,000 -- an aggregate yearly gain of $79,000,000.

就像是第3条所述的薪资奖金计画,这样的安排将可以让公司与其特别股股东一体受惠,后者可以确定在五年内收回现有特别股面额的150%,因为短期的有价证券实在是没有多少报酬率,所以不必付息的特点算是无关紧要,如此一来公司每年将可以减少2,500万的特别股股息,再加上每年多出5,400万美元的获利,加总之后将可获得每年7,900万的利益。

6. Establishment of a Contingency Reserve of $1,000,000,000.:The Directors are confident that the improvements hereinbefore described will assure the Corporation of a satisfactory earning power under all conditions in the future. Under modern accounting methods, however, it is unnecessary to incur the slightest risk of loss through adverse business developments of any sort, since all these may be provided for in advance by means of a Contingency Reserve.

6.建立10亿美元的或有负债准备:董事们有信心经过上述的安排,公司未来不管在任何情况下,都可以确保拥有令人满意的获利能力,然而在现今的会计原则下,公司最好不要承担任何可能的潜在损失的风险,因为最好能够事先先建立一个或有损失负债准备以兹因应。

The Special Committee has recommended that the Corporation create such a Contingency Reserve in the fairly substantial amount of $1,000,000,000. As previously set forth, the annual write-down of inventory to $1 will be absorbed by this reserve. To prevent eventual exhaustion of the Contingency Reserve, it has been further decided that it be replenished each year by transfer of an appropriate sum from Capital Surplus. Since the latter is expected to increase each year by not less than $250,000,000 through the exercise of the Stock Option Warrants (see 3. above), it will readily make good any drains on the Contingency Reserve.

特别委员会因此建议公司可以建立一个10亿美元的或有负债准备,就像是先前所述的,存货价值调整为1美元的差异将由这个准备来吸收,同时为了怕将来或有准备消耗殆尽,每年还将固定由资本公积提拨补充,因为后者透过股票选择权的运用每年将至少可以增加2.5亿美元(见前面第3点),所以随时准备好可供或有准备补充之用。

In setting up this arrangement, the Board of Directors must confess regretfully that they have been unable to improve upon the devices already employed by important corporations in transferring large sums between Capital, Capital Surplus, Contingency Reserves and other Balance Sheet Accounts. In fact, it must be admitted that our entries will be somewhat too simple, and will lack that element of extreme mystification that characterizes the most advanced procedure in this field. The Board of Directors, however, have insisted upon clarity and simplicity in framing their Modernization Plan, even at the sacrifice of possible advantage to the Corporation's earning power.

透过这样的安排,董事会必须坦承他们很遗憾还不能够向其它美国大企业一样,充分地运用各种方法,让股本、资本公积、或有负债与资产负债表其它科目互通有无,事实上我们必须承认,目前我们公司所作的分录还过于简单,根本没有达到一般业界那样能够利用最先进的手法,让整个会计程序神秘复杂化,然而对此董事会还是强调在规划革新方案时,还是必须坚持清楚明了的原则,虽然这样做会对公司的获利能力有所影响。

In order to show the combined effect of the new proposals upon the Corporation's earning power, we submit herewith a condensed Income Account for 1935 on two bases, viz:

为了显示新方案对于公司获利能力的影响到底有多大? 我们特别列出1935年分别在两种不同基础下的损益状况:


 
 
 
 
B. Pro-Forma
Giving Effect to
Changes Proposed
Herewith
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
A. As Reported
 

Gross Receipts from all Sources (Including Inter-Company)
 
$765,000,000
 
$765,000,000
 

Salaries and Wages
 
251,000,000
 
--
 

Other Operating Expenses and Taxes
 
461,000,000
 
311,000,000
 

Depreciation
 
47,000,000
 
(50,000,000)
 

Interest
 
5,000,000
 
5,000,000
 

Discount on Bonds Retired
 
--
 
(54,000,000)
 

Preferred Dividends
 
25,000,000
 
--
 

Balance for Common
 
(24,000,000)
 
553,000,000
 

Average Shares Outstanding
 
8,703,252
 
11,203,252
 

Earned Per Share
 
($2.76)
 
$49.80
 

In accordance with a somewhat antiquated custom there is appended herewith a condensed pro-forma Balance Sheet of the U. S. Steel Corporation as of December 31, 1935, after giving effect to proposed changes in asset and liability accounts.

为了配合有点老旧的会计原则,附件是美国钢铁1935年12月31日拟制性的合并资产负债表,在经过调整后的资产负债科目状况。


ASSETS
 
LIABILITIES
 

Fixed Assets, net
 
($1,000,000,000)
 
Common Stock Par 1¢ (Par Value $87,032.52) Stated Value*
 
($3,500,000,000)
 

Cash Assets
 
142,000,000
 
Subsidiaries' Bonds and Stocks
 
113,000,000
 

Receivables .
 
56,000,000
 
New Sinking Fund Notes
 
1,080,000,000
 

Inventory
 
1
 
Current Liabilities
 
69,000,000
 

Miscellaneous Assets
 
27,000,000
 
Contingency Reserve
 
1,000,000,000
 

 
 
 
 
Other Reserves
 
74,000,000
 

 
 
 
 
Initial Surplus
 
389,000,001
 

Total
 
($774,999,999)
 
Total
 
($774,999,999)
 

 

 

*Given a Stated Value differing from Par Value, in accordance with the laws of the State of Virginia, where the company will be re-incorporated.

有别于原先的固定面额,现在的股本改为不固定面额,根据维吉尼亚州的法令,公司必须重新设立。

It is perhaps unnecessary to point out to our stockholders that modern accounting methods give rise to balance sheets differing somewhat in appearance from those of a less advanced period. In view of the very large earning power that will result from these changes in the Corporation's Balance Sheet, it is not expected that undue attention will be paid to the details of assets and liabilities.

实在是不必要跟各位股东报告,更新过后的资产负债表与原先的报表将会有很大的不同,我想为了让公司的获利大增因此必须就资产负债科目做很大的调整,大家应该不会对此有太多的意见。

In conclusion, the Board desires to point out that the combined procedure, whereby plant will be carried at a minus figure, our wage bill will be eliminated, and inventory will stand on our books at virtually nothing, will give U. S. Steel Corporation an enormous competitive advantage in the industry. We shall be able to sell our products at exceedingly low prices and still show a handsome margin of profit. It is the considered view of the Board of Directors that under the Modernization Scheme we shall be able to undersell all competitors to such a point that the anti-trust laws will constitute the only barrier to 100% domination of the industry.

总而言之,董事会这一连串措施,包含将厂房价值调为负数、薪水删掉、存货降到几乎为零,将可使美国钢铁在产业的竞争力大为增加,我们将可以因此以非常低的价格销售我们所生产的产品,同时还可以保有很好的获利,董事会也认为在这项更新计画之下,我们将可以彻底打败竞争对手,直到我们达到反托拉斯法100%市场占有率的最高上限。

In making this statement, the Board is not unmindful of the possibility that some of our competitors may seek to offset our new advantages by adopting similar accounting improvements. We are confident, however, that U. S. Steel will be able to retain the loyalty of its customers, old and new, through the unique prestige that will accrue to it as the originator and pioneer in these new fields of service to the user of steel. Should necessity arise, moreover, we believe we shall be able to maintain our deserved superiority by introducing still more advanced bookkeeping methods, which are even now under development in our Experimental Accounting Laboratory.

当然在准备这份报告时,董事会不是不知道同业也有可能仿效我们这类的做法,使得我们这样做的效益大打折扣,但是我们有信心美国钢铁身为提供钢铁用户这类新式服务的先驱领航者,一定能够维持住客户的忠诚度,不论是老客户或是新客户,当然若是有任何意外,美国钢铁仍将透过我们新设立的会计研究实验室,致力于研发出更新的会计做帐原则,以继续保持我们的优势地位。

APPENDIX B

附录B

Some Thoughts on Selling Your Business*

对于阁下有意出售公司的一些想法

*This is an edited version of a letter I sent some years ago to a man who had indicated that he might want to sell his family business. I present it here because it is a message I would like to convey to other prospective sellers. -- W.E.B.

这是几年前我写给一位有意出售其家族事业给我们的人士,在经过修正后,我特地把这封信摆在这里,因为这正是我想传达给其它有意出售事业者的讯息-华伦巴菲特

Dear _____________:Here are a few thoughts pursuant to our conversation of the other day.

您好:以下是在前几天我们的谈话后,我个人的一些想法。

Most business owners spend the better part of their lifetimes building their businesses. By experience built upon endless repetition, they sharpen their skills in merchandising, purchasing, personnel selection, etc. It's a learning process, and mistakes made in one year often contribute to competence and success in succeeding years.

大部分的企业老板无不终其一生努力地建立自己的企业王国,经过不断地努力焠炼,他们在行销、采购与人事管理上的经验都能持续地精进,这是一个学习的过程,先前一时的挫败通常会成就后来的成功。

In contrast, owner-managers sell their business only once -- frequently in an emotionally-charged atmosphere with a multitude of pressures coming from different directions. Often, much of the pressure comes from brokers whose compensation is contingent upon consummation of a sale, regardless of its consequences for both buyer and seller. The fact that the decision is so important, both financially and personally, to the owner can make the process more, rather than less, prone to error. And, mistakes made in the once-in-a-lifetime sale of a business are not reversible.

相对地,自己当老板的经理人在面对来自各方的压力,偶尔会在一时冲动的情况下,考虑出售自己拥有的事业,通常是因为中间人为了赚取成交的佣金不顾买卖双方的利益而怂恿老板赶快做决定,事实上做这样的决策牵涉重大,不管是在财务或是个人方面皆是如此,仓促地决定可能使得老板做出错误而不是正确的决策,而且一旦发生可就是一辈子无法挽回的错误。

Price is very important, but often is not the most critical aspect of the sale. You and your family have an extraordinary business -- one of a kind in your field -- and any buyer is going to recognize that. It's also a business that is going to get more valuable as the years go by. So if you decide not to sell now, you are very likely to realize more money later on. With that knowledge you can deal from strength and take the time required to select the buyer you want.

价格当然很重要,但是通常它并不是整个交易最关键的因素,你跟你的家族拥有业界最棒的企业,所有的潜在买家当然都知道这一点,而随着时间的演进,你的事业也会变得更有价值,所以若你现在决定不卖了,这代表以后你可能可以赚更多的钱,而有了这样的认知,你大可以从容以对,慢慢地寻找你希望的买主。

If you should decide to sell, I think Berkshire Hathaway offers some advantages that most other buyers do not. Practically all of these buyers will fall into one of two categories:

但是要是你真的决定要卖,我相信Berkshire绝对可以提供比别人更好的条件,基本上可能的买主可以分为两大类︰

(1) A company located elsewhere but operating in your business or in a business somewhat akin to yours. Such a buyer -- no matter what promises are made -- will usually have managers who feel they know how to run your business operations and, sooner or later, will want to apply some hands-on "help." If the acquiring company is much larger, it often will have squads of managers, recruited over the years in part by promises that they will get to run future acquisitions. They will have their own way of doing things and, even though your business record undoubtedly will be far better than theirs, human nature will at some point cause them to believe that their methods of operating are superior. You and your family probably have friends who have sold their businesses to larger companies, and I suspect that their experiences will confirm the tendency of parent companies to take over the running of their subsidiaries, particularly when the parent knows the industry, or thinks it does.
(1)第一种是你的同业或是与你的所处的产业相近的业者,这种买家不管他给你怎么样的承诺,通常会让你感觉到好象他比你懂得如何来经营你的事业,而早晚有一天他会想要插手来帮忙你的营运,而若是买方再大一点,通常还会应征一大堆经理人进来,借口表示以后还会有更多的购并案,他们一定会有自己的一套做事方法,虽然你过去的经营记录明显地比他们好太多,但人性的某一面还是使他们觉得他们做事的方法才是对的,你跟你家人的朋友大概也有人曾经将公司卖给大企业的,我想他们应该也有这方面的经验,可以证实大公司有倾向将子公司的业务接过去管理,尤其是他们对这行也很内行或自认很内行时。

(2) A financial maneuverer, invariably operating with large amounts of borrowed money, who plans to resell either to the public or to another corporation as soon as the time is favorable. Frequently, this buyer's major contribution will be to change accounting methods so that earnings can be presented in the most favorable light just prior to his bailing out. I'm enclosing a recent article that describes this sort of transaction, which is becoming much more frequent because of a rising stock market and the great supply of funds available for such transactions.

(2)第二类的公司是财务公司,大量运用所借来的资金,只要时机得当,总是准备随时将公司再卖给投资大众或是别的大企业,通常这类买主对公司最大的贡献就是改变公司的会计政策,使得公司盈余比以前看起来好看一点,如此一来使他得以用更好的价格脱手而出,附件是最近一篇有关这类交易的文章报导,由于最近股市热络所以这类的活动也相当频繁,同时这类的资金也相当充沛。

If the sole motive of the present owners is to cash their chips and put the business behind them -- and plenty of sellers fall in this category -- either type of buyer that I've just described is satisfactory. But if the sellers' business represents the creative work of a lifetime and forms an integral part of their personality and sense of being, buyers of either type have serious flaws.

如果公司现在的拥有人唯一的目标只是随时准备将企业待价而沽,弃企业整体的利益于不顾,很多的卖主确实属于这类型,那么先前所描述的买方应该都可以为卖方所接受,但是要是卖方所要出售的公司是他一辈子的心血结晶,甚至已经成为其人格与生命的一部份,那么这两类的买方可能都不能符合你的标准。 

Berkshire is another kind of buyer -- a rather unusual one. We buy to keep, but we don't have, and don't expect to have, operating people in our parent organization. All of the businesses we own are run autonomously to an extraordinary degree. In most cases, the managers of important businesses we have owned for many years have not been to Omaha or even met each other. When we buy a business, the sellers go on running it just as they did before the sale; we adapt to their methods rather than vice versa.

至于Berkshire则属于另外一类型的买主,而且绝对是与众不同的,我们买进是为了拥有,但我们不要,也不希望公司的营运主管由母公司指派,我们旗下所有的事业都能够相当独立自主地营运,大部分的情况下,我们所拥有的重要事业管理人从来就没有来过奥玛哈,甚至于双方连面都没碰过,当我们买下一间公司之后,卖方依旧还是照原来的样子经营公司,是我们要去适应他们,不是他们要来适应我们。

We have no one -- family, recently recruited MBAs, etc. -- to whom we have promised a chance to run businesses we have bought from owner-managers. And we won't have.

我们没有任何家族成员或是新进聘用的企管硕士,准备要来经营我们买下的任何企业,我想以后也不会有这种情况。 

You know of some of our past purchases. I'm enclosing a list of everyone from whom we have ever bought a business, and I invite you to check with them as to our performance versus our promises. You should be particularly interested in checking with the few whose businesses did not do well in order to ascertain how we behaved under difficult conditions.

如果你知道我们过去的购并案,我会附上过去我们购买企业的名单,我建议你可以打个电话check看看,我们是不是说到做到,特别是你可以问问少数几家经营不甚理想的公司,看看在艰难的状况下,我们又会采取怎样的做法。 

Any buyer will tell you that he needs you personally -- and if he has any brains, he most certainly does need you. But a great many buyers, for the reasons mentioned above, don't match their subsequent actions to their earlier words. We will behave exactly as promised, both because we have so promised, and because we need to in order to achieve the best business results.

任何买主都会告诉你,私底下他很需要你的协助,当然若他真的有大脑,他就会知道他真的是需要你,但大多数的买主,基于先前所提的几个理由,大都不会遵守先前所作的承诺,但我们不一样,绝对是说到做到,因为一方面我们已做出承诺,另一方面我们也是为了有更有的经营成果。

This need explains why we would want the operating members of your family to retain a 20% interest in the business. We need 80% to consolidate earnings for tax purposes, which is a step important to us. It is equally important to us that the family members who run the business remain as owners. Very simply, we would not want to buy unless we felt key members of present management would stay on as our partners. Contracts cannot guarantee your continued interest; we would simply rely on your word.

这样的需求可以说明为何我们希望原有的经营团队最好能够保留20%的股份,基于租税规划我们需要80%以上的股权,这点很重要,但同时我们也希望继续留下来管理的家族成员也能够自己当老板,所以很简单,除非我们确定原有的主要经理人还会继续留下来成为我们的合伙人,否则我们不会考虑买下公司,合约并不能保证你会继续投入,我们相信的是你承诺的每一个字。

The areas I get involved in are capital allocation and selection and compensation of the top man. Other personnel decisions, operating strategies, etc. are his bailiwick. Some Berkshire managers talk over some of their decisions with me; some don't. It depends upon their personalities and, to an extent, upon their own personal relationship with me.

我们会介入的领域是资金的规划与配置,以及高阶人员的任命与报酬,其余的人事、营运策略等那就是你自己的事,有些Berkshire旗下事业的经理人会把他们所作的一些商业决定向我报告,有些则不会,这主要是视他们本身的个性,以及与我个人的私人关系而定。

If you should decide to do business with Berkshire, we would pay in cash. Your business would not be used as collateral for any loan by Berkshire. There would be no brokers involved.

如果你决定要跟Berkshire一起做生意,我们会以现金的方式给予报酬,你的企业资产也不会被Berkshire拿来当作借款的抵押品,也不会有掮客牵涉其中。

Furthermore, there would be no chance that a deal would be announced and that the buyer would then back off or start suggesting adjustments (with apologies, of course, and with an explanation that banks, lawyers, boards of directors, etc. were to be blamed). And finally, you would know exactly with whom you are dealing. You would not have one executive negotiate the deal only to have someone else in charge a few years later, or have the president regretfully tell you that his board of directors required this change or that (or possibly required sale of your business to finance some new interest of the parent's).

另外在交易成交后,我们也不会临时宣布退出不玩,或是提出要做调整的要求, (当然要是银行、律师、董事会等方面的出状况,我们也会做出道歉与合理的解释),你不会碰到几年前与你谈判的主管突然走人,之后新上任的主管一概不认帐,或是公司总裁很遗憾地跟你说,他背后的董事会要求你这样或要求你那样, (或甚至想要再把你的公司卖掉以支应母公司新的资金需求)。

It's only fair to tell you that you would be no richer after the sale than now. The ownership of your business already makes you wealthy and soundly invested. A sale would change the form of your wealth, but it wouldn't change its amount. If you sell, you will have exchanged a 100%-owned valuable asset that you understand for another valuable asset -- cash -- that will probably be invested in small pieces (stocks) of other businesses that you understand less well. There is often a sound reason to sell but, if the transaction is a fair one, the reason is not so that the seller can become wealthier.

另外也必须要提醒你在交易完成后,你并不会比原来还富有,因为拥有原来的事业已经让你用最有利的投资方式赚了很多钱,整个交易只会让你的财富形式有所改变,但基本上金额数量并不会改变,若你要卖,你可以确定将能够把原有100%持有且熟悉的资产,换得另外一种资产-现金,或再加上一小部份你比较不熟悉的企业股份,要做出出售的决定总有许多理由,但若整个交易是公平合理的话,这个理由绝对不是卖方因此可以变得更富有。

I will not pester you; if you have any possible interest in selling, I would appreciate your call. I would be extraordinarily proud to have Berkshire, along with the key members of your family, own ___I believe we would do very well financially; and I believe you would have just as much fun running the business over the next 20 years as you have had during the past 20.我不会刻意纠缠你,但若你有任何的意愿想要出售的话,我会很乐意接到你的电话,我很荣幸能够让Berkshire与你的家族成员一起拥有这份事业;我相信公司在财务上一定会变得更好,而我也相信在未来的20年内,你也会像过去20年来一样,愉快地继续经营这份事业。

一九九一

Our gain in net worth during 1991 was $2.1 billion, or 39.6%. Over the last 27 years (that is, since present management took over) our per-share book value has grown from $19 to $6,437, or at a rate of 23.7% compounded annually.

1991年本公司的净值成长了21亿美元,较去年增加了39.6%,而总计过去27年以来,也就是自从现有经营阶层接手之后,每股净值从19元成长到现在的6,437美元,年复合成长率约为23.7%。

The size of our equity capital - which now totals $7.4 billion - makes it certain that we cannot maintain our past rate of gain or, for that matter, come close to doing so. As Berkshire grows, the universe of opportunities that can significantly influence the company's performance constantly shrinks. When we were working with capital of $20 million, an idea or business producing $1 million of profit added five percentage points to our return for the year. Now we need a $370 million idea (i.e., one contributing over $550 million of pre-tax profit) to achieve the same result. And there are many more ways to make $1 million than to make $370 million.

现在我们股东权益的资金规模已高达74亿美元,所以可以确定的是,我们可能再也无法像过去那样继续维持高成长,而随着Berkshire不断地成长,世上所存可以大幅影响本公司表现的机会也就越来越少。当我们操作的资金只有2,000万美元的时候,一项获利100万美元的案子就可以使得我们的年报酬率增加5%,但时至今日,我们却要有3.7亿美元的获利(要是以税前计算的话,更要5.5亿美元),才能达到相同的效果,而要一口气赚3.7亿美元比起一次赚100万美元的难度可是高的多了。

Charlie Munger, Berkshire's Vice Chairman, and I have set a goal of attaining a 15% average annual increase in Berkshire's intrinsic value. If our growth in book value is to keep up with a 15% pace, we must earn $22 billion during the next decade. Wish us luck - we'll need it.

查理孟格-Berkshire的副主席与我一起设定,以15%做为每年公司实质价值成长的目标,也就是说如果在未来十年内,公司要能达到这个目标,则帐面净值至少要增加22亿美元,请大家祝我们好运吧! 我们真的很需要祝福。

Our outsized gain in book value in 1991 resulted from a phenomenon not apt to be repeated: a dramatic rise in the price-earnings ratios of Coca-Cola and Gillette. These two stocks accounted for nearly $1.6 billion of our $2.1 billion growth in net worth last year. When we loaded up on Coke three years ago, Berkshire's net worth was $3.4 billion; now our Coke stock alone is worth more than that.

我们在1991年所经历帐面数字的超额成长是一种不太可能再发生的现象,受惠于可口可乐与吉列刮胡刀本益比的大幅飙升,光是这两家公司就合计贡献了我们去年21亿美元净值成长中的16亿美元,三年前当我们大笔敲进可口可乐股票的时候,Berkshire的净值大约是34亿美元,但是现在光是我们持有可口可乐的股票市值就超过这个数字。

Coca-Cola and Gillette are two of the best companies in the world and we expect their earnings to grow at hefty rates in the years ahead. Over time, also, the value of our holdings in these stocks should grow in rough proportion. Last year, however, the valuations of these two companies rose far faster than their earnings. In effect, we got a double-dip benefit, delivered partly by the excellent earnings growth and even more so by the market's reappraisal of these stocks. We believe this reappraisal was warranted. But it can't recur annually: We'll have to settle for a single dip in the future.

可口可乐与吉列刮胡刀可说是当今世上最好的两家公司,我们预期在未来几年他们的获利还会以惊人的速度成长,相对地我们持股的价值也会以等比例的程度增加,然而另一方面去年这两家公司的股价上涨的幅度却远高于其本身获利增长的幅度,所以说去年我们是两面得利,一方面是靠公司绝佳的获利能力,一方面是市场对于公司股票的重新评价,当然我们认为这样的调整是经得起考验的,但这种情况不太可能每年都发生,展望未来我们可能只能靠前面那点而获益。

A Second Job第二件工作

In 1989 when I - a happy consumer of five cans of Cherry Coke daily - announced our purchase of $1 billion worth of Coca-Cola stock, I described the move as a rather extreme example of putting our money where my mouth was. On August 18 of last year, when I was elected Interim Chairman of Salomon Inc, it was a different story: I put my mouth where our money was.

1989年当我以每天五瓶樱桃可乐的爱用者身分,宣布买进价值10亿美元的可口可乐股票时,我曾形容这项举动其实只是将钱花在嘴巴上的最佳例证,在去年8月18日当我被推举为所罗门公司的临时主席时,则完全是另外一件事,这次我把嘴巴摆在我们的钱上。

You've all read of the events that led to my appointment. My decision to take the job carried with it an implicit but important message: Berkshire's operating managers are so outstanding that I knew I could materially reduce the time I was spending at the company and yet remain confident that its economic progress would not skip a beat. The Blumkins, the Friedman family, Mike Goldberg, the Heldmans, Chuck Huggins, Stan Lipsey, Ralph Schey and Frank Rooney (CEO of H.H. Brown, our latest acquisition, which I will describe later) are all masters of their operations and need no help from me. My job is merely to treat them right and to allocate the capital they generate. Neither function is impeded by my work at Salomon.

我想大家应该都已经从报上看过有关我个人任命为所罗门董事会临时主席的报导,我之所以愿意接受这个职位具有一个深刻且重要的意义,那就是Berkshire旗下事业的经理人是如此的优秀,让我可能很放心的时间摆在别的心思之上,而完全不必担心公司的营运会走样,Blumkins家族、Friedman 家族、Mike Goldberg、the Heldmans、Chuck Huggins、Stan Lipsey 、Ralph Schey与Frank Rooney(我们最新购并的HH Brown鞋业的CEO,后面还会有详细的介绍)等人,都是所属产业的龙头,因此根本就不需要我个人的协助,我的工作只是要思考如何更公平合理地对待他们,同时有效地运用他们所产生出来的资金,而这两方面都不会因为我在所罗门的工作而受到影响。

The role that Charlie and I play in the success of our operating units can be illustrated by a story about George Mira, the one-time quarterback of the University of Miami, and his coach, Andy Gustafson. Playing Florida and near its goal line, Mira dropped back to pass. He spotted an open receiver but found his right shoulder in the unshakable grasp of a Florida linebacker. The right-handed Mira thereupon switched the ball to his other hand and threw the only left-handed pass of his life - for a touchdown. As the crowd erupted, Gustafson calmly turned to a reporter and declared: "Now that's what I call coaching."

查理跟我在这些成功的企业所扮演的角色,可以由迈阿密大学著名的四分卫-George Mira与他的教练-Andy Gustafson的故事来作说明,有一回在与佛罗里达大学对抗时,在终点线前,Mira突然煞车后退并准备传球,他看到有一个队友有空档,不过他的右手边却有一位难以摆脱的防守球员在侧,右撇子的Mira于是将球换到左手,并丢出生平第一次的左手传球,而后达阵成功,当所有的球迷疯狂地簇拥而上,教练Gustafson镇定地转向一位记者说到:「这都是因为我平常训练有素的缘故!」。

Given the managerial stars we have at our operating units, Berkshire's performance is not affected if Charlie or I slip away from time to time. You should note, however, the "interim" in my Salomon title. Berkshire is my first love and one that will never fade: At the Harvard Business School last year, a student asked me when I planned to retire and I replied, "About five to ten years after I die."

以我们现有的梦幻明星级的经营团队阵容来说,Berkshire的表现绝不会因为查理或是我偶尔跷班而有所影响,大家必须知道,我在所罗门的名衔只是暂时的, Berkshire才是我的最爱,而且是至死不渝的爱,去年在哈佛商学院,有学生问我何时会退休,我的回答是:「大概要等到我死后五到十年吧!」。

Sources of Reported Earnings帐列盈余的来源

The table below shows the major sources of Berkshire's reported earnings. In this presentation, amortization of Goodwill and other major purchase-price accounting adjustments are notcharged against the specific businesses to which they apply, but are instead aggregated and shown separately. This procedure lets you view the earnings of our businesses as they would have been reported had we not purchased them. I've explained in past reports why this form of presentation seems to us to be more useful to investors and managers than one utilizing generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which require purchase-price adjustments to be made on a business-by-business basis. The total net earnings we show in the table are, of course, identical to the GAAP total in our audited financial statements.

下表显示Berkshire帐列盈余的主要来源,在这张表中商誉的摊销数与购买法会计调整数会从个别被投资公司分离出来,单独加总列示,之所以这样做是为了让旗下各事业的盈余状况,不因我们的投资而有所影响,过去我一再地强调我们认为这样的表达方式,较之一般公认会计原则要求以个别企业基础做调整,不管是
对投资者或是管理者来说,更有帮助,当然最后损益加总的数字仍然会与经会计师查核的数字一致。

A large amount of additional information about these businesses is given on pages 33-47, where you also will find our segment earnings reported on a GAAP basis. However, we will not in this letter discuss each of our non-insurance operations, as we have in the past. Our businesses have grown in number - and will continue to grow - so it now makes sense to rotate coverage, discussing one or two in detail each year.

年报中还有企业个别部门的信息,依照一般公认会计原则所编写的格式,另外从今年开始我们将不再像过去那样详细叙述非保险业的营运,因为我们旗下事业组织日益庞大,且以后还会继续成长,所以实在是没有必要每年都重复讨论相同的事情。

(000s omitted) Berkshire's Share of Net Earnings (after taxes and Pre-Tax Earnings minority interests)

1991 1990 1991 1990

Operating Earnings: Insurance Group:


 
 
Underwriting
 
Net Investment Income
 
H. H. Brown (acquired 7/1/91)
 
Buffalo News
 
Fechheimer
 
Kirby .
 

1991
 
$(119,593)
 
331,846
 
13,616
 
37,113
 
12,947
 
35,726
 

1990
 
$ (26,647)
 
327,047
 
---
 
43,954
 
12,450
 
27,445
 

1991
 
$ (77,229)
 
285,173
 
8,611
 
21,841
 
6,843
 
22,555
 

1990
 
$ (14,936)
 
282,613
 
---
 
25,981
 
6,605
 
17,613
 

 


 
 
Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group
 
See's Candies
 
Wesco - other than Insurance
 
World Book
 
Amortization of Goodwill
 

1991
 
14,384
 
26,123
 
42,390
 
12,230
 
22,483
 
(4,113)
 

1990
 
17,248
 
30,378
 
39,580
 
12,441
 
31,896
 
(3,476)
 

1991
 
6,993
 
15,901
 
25,575
 
8,777
 
15,487
 
(4,098)
 

1990
 
8,485
 
18,458
 
23,892
 
9,676
 
20,420
 
(3,461)
 

Other Purchase-Price                                     Shareholder-Designated


 
 
Accounting Charges
 
Interest Expense*
 
 
 
Contributions
 
Other
 

1991
 
(6,021)
 
(89,250)
 
(6,772)
 
77,399
 

1990
 
(5,951)
 
(76,374)
 
(5,824)
 
58,310
 

1991
 
(7,019)
 
(57,165)
 
(4,388)
 
47,896
 

1990
 
(6,856)
 
(49,726)
 
(3,801)
 
35,782
 

 


 
 
Operating Earnings
 
Sales of Securities
 
Total Earnings - All Entities
 

1991
 
400,508
 
192,478
 
$ 592,986
 

1990
 
482,477
 
33,989
 
$ 516,466
 

1991
 
315,753
 
124,155
 
$ 439,908
 

1990
 
370,745
 
23,348
 
$ 394,093
 

*Excludes interest expense of Scott Fetzer Financial Group and

Mutual Savings & Loan.

*不包含史考特飞兹与联合储贷的利息费用

"Look-Through" Earnings透视盈余

We've previously discussed look-through earnings, which consist of: (1) the operating earnings reported in the previous section, plus; (2) the retained operating earnings of major investees that, under GAAP accounting, are not reflected in our profits, less; (3) an allowance for the tax that would be paid by Berkshire if these retained earnings of investees had instead been distributed to us.

之前我们曾经讨论过透视盈余,其主要的组成份子有(1)前段所提到的帐列盈余,加上(2)主要被投资公司的保留盈余,按一般公认会计原则未反应在我们公司帐上的盈余,扣除(3)若这些未反应的盈余分配给我们时,估计可能要缴的所得税。

I've told you that over time look-through earnings must increase at about 15% annually if our intrinsic business value is to grow at that rate. Indeed, since present management took over in 1965, our look-through earnings have grown at almost the identical 23% rate of gain recorded for book value.

我曾经告诉各位,长期而言,如果我们的实质价值也期望以这个幅度来成长的话,透视盈余每年也必须增加15%,而的确过自从现有经营阶层于1965年接手后,公司的透视盈余几乎与帐面价值一样,以23%的年复合成长率增加。

Last year, however, our look-through earnings did not grow at all but rather declined by 14%. To an extent, the decline was precipitated by two forces that I discussed in last year's report and that I warned you would have a negative effect on look-through earnings.

然而去年我们的透视盈余不但没有增加,反而减少了14%,这样的下滑主要导源于去年年报就曾经向各位提过的两项因素,那时我就曾经警告各位那对我们的透视盈余将会有负面的影响。

First, I told you that our media earnings - both direct and look-through - were "sure to decline" and they in fact did. The second force came into play on April 1, when the call of our Gillette preferred stock required us to convert it into common. The after-tax earnings in 1990 from our preferred had been about $45 million, an amount somewhat higher than the combination in 1991 of three months of dividends on our preferred plus nine months of look-through earnings on the common.

首先我告诉各位旗下媒体事业的盈余,不管是帐面直接或是间接透视一定会减少,而事实证明确是如此,第二个因素发生在4月1号我们吉列特别股被要求转为普通股,1990年来自特别股的税后盈余是4,500万美元,大概比1991年一季的股利总和加上三季的普通股透视盈余还多一点。

Two other outcomes that I did not foresee also hurt look-through earnings in 1991. First, we had a break-even result from our interest in Wells Fargo (dividends we received from the company were offset by negative retained earnings). Last year I said that such a result at Wells was "a low-level possibility - not a likelihood." Second, we recorded significantly lower - though still excellent - insurance profits.

另外有二项我没有意料到的结果,也影响到我们1991年的透视盈余,首先我们在Well-Fargo的利益大概仅维持损益两平(所收到的股利收入被其累积亏损所抵消),去年我说这样的可能性很低的说法,其可信度存疑,第二我们的保险业盈余虽然算是不错,但还是比往年低。

The following table shows you how we calculate look-through earnings, although I warn you that the figures are necessarily very rough. (The dividends paid to us by these investees have been included in the operating earnings itemized on page 6, mostly under "Insurance Group: Net Investment Income.")

各位可以从下表看出我们是如何计算透视盈余的,不过我还是要提醒各位这些数字有点粗糙,(被投资公司所分配的股利收入已经包含在保险事业的净投资收益项下)

Berkshire's Share of Undistributed Berkshire's Approximate Operating Earnings Berkshire's Major Investees Ownership at Yearend (in millions)


 
 
Capital Cities/ABC Inc
 
The Coca-Cola Company
 
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp.
 
The Gillette Company
 
GEICO Corp.
 
The Washington Post Company
 
Wells Fargo & Company
 

1991
 
18.1%
 
7.0%
 
3.4%(1)
 
11.0%
 
48.2%
 
14.6%
 
9.6%
 

1990
 
17.9%
 
7.0%
 
3.2%(1)
 
---
 
46.1%
 
14.6%
 
9.7%
 

1991
 
$ 61
 
69
 
15
 
23(2)
 
69
 
10
 
(17)
 

1990
 
$ 85
 
58
 
10
 
---
 
76
 
18
 
19(3)
 

Berkshire's share of

undistributed earnings of major investees $230 $266

Hypothetical tax on these undistributed investee earnings (30) (35)

Reported operating earnings of Berkshire 316 371

Total look-through earnings of Berkshire $516 $602

1. Net of minority interest at Wesco已扣除Wesco的少数股权

2. For the nine months after Berkshire converted its preferred on April 1仅含Berkshire于4月1日申请转换为普通股后的九个月

3. Calculated on average ownership for the year以年平均持有股权比例计算

We also believe that investors can benefit by focusing on their own look-through earnings. To calculate these, they should determine the underlying earnings attributable to the shares they hold in their portfolio and total these. The goal of each investor should be to create a portfolio (in effect, a "company") that will deliver him or her the highest possible look-through earnings a decade or so from now.

我们也相信投资人可以透过研究自己的透视盈余而受益,在算这个东西时,他们就会了解到其个别投资组合所应分配到的真正盈余的合计数,所有投资人的目标,应该是要建立一项投资组合可以让其透视盈余在从现在开始的十年内极大化。

An approach of this kind will force the investor to think about long-term business prospects rather than short-term stock market prospects, a perspective likely to improve results. It's true, of course, that, in the long run, the scoreboard for investment decisions is market price. But prices will be determined by future earnings. In investing, just as in baseball, to put runs on the scoreboard one must watch the playing field, not the scoreboard.

这样的方式将会迫使投资人思考企业真正的长期远景而不是短期的股价表现,从而藉此改善其投资绩效,当然无可否认就长期而言,投资决策的绩效还是要建立在股价表现之上,但价格将取决于未来的获利能力,投资就像是打棒球一样,想要得分大家必须将注意力集中到场上,而不是紧盯着计分板。

A Change in Media Economics and Some Valuation Math媒体产业的变化与其评价的算式

In last year's report, I stated my opinion that the decline in the profitability of media companies reflected secular as well as cyclical factors. The events of 1991 have fortified that case: The economic strength of once-mighty media enterprises continues to erode as retailing patterns change and advertising and entertainment choices proliferate. In the business world, unfortunately, the rear-view mirror is always clearer than the windshield: A few years back no one linked to the media business - neither lenders, owners nor financial analysts - saw the economic deterioration that was in store for the industry. (But give me a few years and I'll probably convince myself that I did.)

在去年的报告中,我曾经表示媒体事业获利能力衰退主要是反应景气的循环因素,但在1991年发生的情况则不是那么一回事,由于零售业形态的转变加上广告与娱乐事业的多元化,以往曾经一度风光的媒体事业,其竞争力已受到严重的侵蚀,然而不幸的是在商业世界中,从后照镜所看到的景象永远比挡风玻璃的还清楚,几年前几乎没有人,包含银行、股东与证券分析师在内,会不看好媒体事业的发展,(若是再多给我几年,我可能就能正确判断出这个产业正在走下坡)。

The fact is that newspaper, television, and magazine properties have begun to resemble businesses more than franchises in their economic behavior. Let's take a quick look at the characteristics separating these two classes of enterprise, keeping in mind, however, that many operations fall in some middle ground and can best be described as weak franchises or strong businesses.

事实是报纸、电视与杂志等媒体的行为,越来越超越身为特许行业所应该做的事,让我们很快地看一下特许事业与一般事业在特性上的不同,不过请记住,很多公司事实上是介于这两者之间,所以也可以将之形容为弱势的特许事业或是强势的一般企业。

An economic franchise arises from a product or service that: (1) is needed or desired; (2) is thought by its customers to have no close substitute and; (3) is not subject to price regulation. The existence of all three conditions will be demonstrated by a company's ability to regularly price its product or service aggressively and thereby to earn high rates of return on capital. Moreover, franchises can tolerate mis-management. Inept managers may diminish a franchise's profitability, but they cannot inflict mortal damage.

藉由特定的产品或服务,一家公司可以成为特许的行业(1)它确有需要或需求(2)被顾客认定为找不到其它类似的替代品(3)不受价格上的管制,一家公司到底有没有具有以上三个特点可能从他是否能积极地为本身所提供的产品与服务订定价格的能力,从而赚取更高的资本报酬率,更重要的特许事业比较能够容忍不当的管理,无能的经理人虽然会降低特许事业的获利能力,但是并不会造成致命的伤害。

In contrast, "a business" earns exceptional profits only if it is the low-cost operator or if supply of its product or service is tight. Tightness in supply usually does not last long. With superior management, a company may maintain its status as a low-cost operator for a much longer time, but even then unceasingly faces the possibility of competitive attack. And a business, unlike a franchise, can be killed by poor management.

相对的,一般事业想要获致高报酬就只有靠着节省成本或是当其所提供的产品或服务供需不均之时,但是这种供给不足的情况通常维持不了多久,倒是透过优良的管理,一家公司却可以长期维持低成本的营运,但即使是如此,还是会面临竞争对手持续不断的攻击,而不像特许事业,一般事业有可能因为管理不善而倒闭。

Until recently, media properties possessed the three characteristics of a franchise and consequently could both price aggressively and be managed loosely. Now, however, consumers looking for information and entertainment (their primary interest being the latter) enjoy greatly broadened choices as to where to find them. Unfortunately, demand can't expand in response to this new supply: 500 million American eyeballs and a 24-hour day are all that's available. The result is that competition has intensified, markets have fragmented, and the media industry has lost some - though far from all - of its franchise strength.

直到最近,媒体产业还拥有特许事业这三项特质,因此还能够订定侵略性的价格并容忍宽松的管理,不过现在的消费大众不断地寻找不同的信息与娱乐来源,也越来越能够接受各种不同的选择,另一方面很不幸的是消费者的需求并不会随着供给的增加而变大,五亿只美国眼睛,一天24小时,就这么多,不可能再增加了。所以结果可想而知竞争会变得更激烈,市场被区隔开,媒体产业因而丧失了部份原有的特许能力。

The industry's weakened franchise has an impact on its value that goes far beyond the immediate effect on earnings. For an understanding of this phenomenon, let's look at some much over-simplified, but relevant, math.

媒体产业转为弱势,除了让短期盈余获利受到冲击之外,对其本身的价值将有更深远的影响,为了让大家了解这种现象,让我们来看看稍微简化但却颇为相关的数学算式。

A few years ago the conventional wisdom held that a newspaper, television or magazine property would forever increase its earnings at 6% or so annually and would do so without the employment of additional capital, for the reason that depreciation charges would roughly match capital expenditures and working capital requirements would be minor. Therefore, reported earnings (before amortization of intangibles) were also freely-distributable earnings, which meant that ownership of a media property could be construed as akin to owning a perpetual annuity set to grow at 6% a year. Say, next, that a discount rate of 10% was used to determine the present value of that earnings stream. One could then calculate that it was appropriate to pay a whopping $25 million for a property with current after-tax earnings of $1 million. (This after-tax multiplier of 25 translates to a multiplier on pre-tax earnings of about 16.)

几年以来一般人都认为新闻、电视或是杂志产业的获利能力,可以永无止尽地以每年6%左右的比率成长,而且可以完全不必依靠额外的资金,也因此每年的折旧费用应该会与资本支出相当,而由于所需的营运资金也相当小,所以帐列盈余 (在扣除无形资产摊销前)几乎等于可以自由分配运用的盈余,也就是说拥有一家媒体事业,每年几乎可以有6%稳定增加的纯现金流入,同时若我们以10%的折现率来计算现值的话,等于是一次2,500万的投资,每年可以贡献100万美元的税后净利贡献(亦即约为25倍的税后本益比,若换成税前盈余本益比则约为16左右)。

Now change the assumption and posit that the $1 million represents "normal earning power" and that earnings will bob around this figure cyclically. A "bob-around" pattern is indeed the lot of most businesses, whose income stream grows only if their owners are willing to commit more capital (usually in the form of retained earnings). Under our revised assumption, $1 million of earnings, discounted by the same 10%, translates to a $10 million valuation. Thus a seemingly modest shift in assumptions reduces the property's valuation to 10 times after-tax earnings (or about 6 1/2 times pre-tax earnings).

现在假设条件改变,这家公司只拥有普通的获利能力,所以每年100万的获利只能上上下下起伏,这种打摆子的形式就是大部分公司的状况,而公司的获利想要有所成长,老板就必须要投入更多的资金才办得到(通常都是透过保留盈余的方式),经过我们将假设重新做修正,同样以10%加以折现,大概可以达到1,000万美元的价值,结果可以看出,一项看起来不大重要的假设变动却使这家企业的价值大幅减少至10倍税后盈余本益比(或6.5倍税前盈余本益比)。

Dollars are dollars whether they are derived from the operation of media properties or of steel mills. What in the past caused buyers to value a dollar of earnings from media far higher than a dollar from steel was that the earnings of a media property were expected to constantly grow (without the business requiring much additional capital), whereas steel earnings clearly fell in the bob-around category. Now, however, expectations for media have moved toward the bob-around model. And, as our simplified example illustrates, valuations must change dramatically when expectations are revised.

现金就是现金,不管今天它是靠经营媒体事业或是钢铁工厂得来的都一样,而过去同样是一元的获利,大家之所以看重媒体事业的原因是预期他会继续成长(股东不需要再投入额外的资金),而钢铁业很明显会落入打摆子的那类族群,不过现在大家对于媒体事业的看法也逐渐改为后者,而如我们刚刚所举简单的例子,评价的结果可能因为这样的修正而有很大的改变。

We have a significant investment in media - both through our direct ownership of Buffalo News and our shareholdings in The Washington Post Company and Capital Cities/ABC - and the intrinsic value of this investment has declined materially because of the secular transformation that the industry is experiencing. (Cyclical factors have also hurt our current look-through earnings, but these factors do not reduce intrinsic value.) However, as our Business Principles on page 2-3 note, one of the rules by which we run Berkshire is that we do not sell businesses - or investee holdings that we have classified as permanent - simply because we see ways to use the money more advantageously elsewhere. (We did sell certain other media holdings sometime back, but these were relatively small.)

我们在媒体事业有相当大的投资,不管是百分之百拥有的水牛城日报或是在华盛顿邮报与资本城/ABC的股票投资,而这些媒体事业的价值因为前面所提到的产业所面临的形态转变而大幅滑落,(景气循环因素也使得我们现在的透视盈余大受影响,虽然还不致于让实质价值减少),然而就像是我们经营Berkshire的企业原则所揭示的,我们不会只是因为还有其它更有利的资金用途,就随便将已被列为永恒的事业或主要投资出售,(当然之前我们也确实卖了一些媒体股,不过规模相对较小)。

The intrinsic value losses that we have suffered have been moderated because the Buffalo News, under Stan Lipsey's leadership, has done far better than most newspapers and because both Cap Cities and Washington Post are exceptionally well-managed. In particular, these companies stayed on the sidelines during the late 1980's period in which purchasers of media properties regularly paid irrational prices. Also, the debt of both Cap Cities and Washington Post is small and roughly offset by cash that they hold. As a result, the shrinkage in the value of their assets has not been accentuated by the effects of leverage. Among publicly-owned media companies, our two investees are about the only ones essentially free of debt. Most of the other companies, through a combination of the aggressive acquisition policies they pursued and shrinking earnings, find themselves with debt equal to five or more times their current net income.

还好我们的实质价值受到损害的情况尚称轻微,因为水牛城日报在Stan Lipsey的领导之下,表现远比其它报纸同业要来的优秀,另一方面资本城与华盛顿邮报的经营也都很上轨道,特别是在1980年代许多媒体公司以高价大举并购同业时,我们的投资事业都只是做壁上观,而资本城与华盛顿邮报两家公司的负债也都很少,甚至于手上的现金就足以清偿所有的债务,因此公司资产的缩水并没有因为杠杆而扩大,所以现在在所有主要的媒体事业当中,大概就只有我们投资的这两家公司可以免于债务所苦,而早期那些透过大量购并的同业,除了盈余大幅缩水之外,还同时背负着至少相当于年度获利能力五倍以上的负债。

The strong balance sheets and strong managements of Cap Cities and Washington Post leave us more comfortable with these investments than we would be with holdings in any other media companies. Moreover, most media properties continue to have far better economic characteristics than those possessed by the average American business. But gone are the days of bullet-proof franchises and cornucopian economics.

总而言之,资本城及华盛顿邮报超强的资产负债表与管理阶层,持有它们的股份使得我们比持有别家公司的股份感到更放心,而且就现阶段而言,媒体事业还是比其它一般美国企业要来的有竞争力,只是不再像过去拥有金刚不坏之身与诱人的暴利而已。

Twenty Years in a Candy Store二十年的糖果店

We've just passed a milestone: Twenty years ago, on January 3, 1972, Blue Chip Stamps (then an affiliate of Berkshire and later merged into it) bought control of See's Candy Shops, a West Coast manufacturer and retailer of boxed-chocolates. The nominal price that the sellers were asking - calculated on the 100% ownership we ultimately attained - was $40 million. But the company had $10 million of excess cash, and therefore the true offering price was $30 million. Charlie and I, not yet fully appreciative of the value of an economic franchise, looked at the company's mere $7 million of tangible net worth and said $25 million was as high as we would go (and we meant it). Fortunately, the sellers accepted our offer.

我们刚刚跨过历史性的一页,二十年前也就是1972年1月3日,蓝筹邮票公司(原为Berkshire的分支机构,后来并入Berkshire),买下喜斯糖果-西岸的一家盒装巧克力制造与销售厂商,当时卖方所提的报价,以最后取得的100%股权换算约为4,000万美元,但当时光是公司帐上就有1,000万美元的现金,所以认真算起来真正出的资金只有3,000万美金,不过当时查理跟我还不是那么了解一家特许事业所拥有的真正价值,所以在看过帐面净值只有700万美元的报表之后,竟向对方表示2,500万是我们可以出的最高上限(当时我们确实是这样子认为),很幸运的是卖方接受了我们的报价。

The sales of trading stamps by Blue Chip thereafter declined from $102.5 million in 1972 to $1.2 million in 1991. But See's candy sales in the same period increased from $29 million to $196 million. Moreover, profits at See's grew even faster than sales, from $4.2 million pre-tax in 1972 to $42.4 million last year.

之后蓝筹邮票公司的邮票买卖收入从1972年的1亿美元下滑到1991年的1,200万美元,但在同一期间喜斯糖果的营收,却从2,900万成长到1.96亿美元,更甚者,其获利成长的幅度还远高于营收成长的幅度,税前获利从1972年的420万,变成去年的4,240万美元。

For an increase in profits to be evaluated properly, it must be compared with the incremental capital investment required to produce it. On this score, See's has been astounding: The company now operates comfortably with only $25 million of net worth, which means that our beginning base of $7 million has had to be supplemented by only $18 million of reinvested earnings. Meanwhile, See's remaining pre-tax profits of $410 million were distributed to Blue Chip/Berkshire during the 20 years for these companies to deploy (after payment of taxes) in whatever way made most sense.

对于每多赚一块钱的效益评量,大家必须将其所需额外投入的资金考量进去,就这点儿言,喜斯的表现实在是相当惊人,这家公司现在的净值只有2,500万美元,意思是说除了原来投资时的700万美元,后来只保留了1,800万的盈余未分配,除了之外喜斯将这20年来剩下所赚的4亿1,000万美元,在扣除所得税之后,全部发还给蓝筹邮票与Berkshire,将资金分配到更有利的地方之上。

In our See's purchase, Charlie and I had one important insight: We saw that the business had untapped pricing power. Otherwise, we were lucky twice over. First, the transaction was not derailed by our dumb insistence on a $25 million price. Second, we found Chuck Huggins, then See's executive vice-president, whom we instantly put in charge. Both our business and personal experiences with Chuck have been outstanding. One example: When the purchase was made, we shook hands with Chuck on a compensation arrangement - conceived in about five minutes and never reduced to a written contract - that remains unchanged to this day.

在买下喜斯时,有一点是我们已预见的,那就是它尚未被发掘的订价能力,另外我们有两方面算是很幸运,第一整个交易还好没有因为我们愚昧地坚持2,500万美元的上限而告吹,第二我们选中Chuck Huggins-当时喜斯糖果的副总经理,立即走马上任,不管是在公事或是私人方面,我们与Chuck共处的经验都相当难得,有一个例子可以说明,当购并案完成后,我们在短短五分钟内就与Chuck协议好他担任总经理的薪资报酬,而且连书面契约都没有签,就一直延续到今天。

In 1991, See's sales volume, measured in dollars, matched that of 1990. In pounds, however, volume was down 4%. All of that slippage took place in the last two months of the year, a period that normally produces more than 80% of annual profits. Despite the weakness in sales, profits last year grew 7%, and our pre-tax profit margin was a record 21.6%.

1991年喜斯糖果的销售金额与前一年度相当,但是若是以销售数量来算,则减少了4%,所有减少的部份大多来自于占年度获利80%的最后两个月,不过尽管业绩不太好,获利还是成长了7%,税前盈益率更创下21.6%的新高记录。

Almost 80% of See's sales come from California and our business clearly was hurt by the recession, which hit the state with particular force late in the year. Another negative, however, was the mid-year initiation in California of a sales tax of 7%-8? (depending on the county involved) on "snack food" that was deemed applicable to our candy.

喜斯糖果80%的收入都来自于加州,而我们的生意很明显地受到景气衰退的影响,尤其在年度的后半段更是显著,另外一个负面因素是加州在年度中开始对零食课征7%-8%的营业税(依每个市镇有所不同),当然巧克力糖果也不能幸免。

Shareholders who are students of epistemological shadings will enjoy California's classifications of "snack" and "non-snack" foods:

若是精研认识论差异的股东应该会觉得加州对于零食与非零食的分类感到相当有兴趣。

Taxable "Snack" Foods Non-Taxable "Non-Snack" Foods、Ritz Crackers Soda Crackers、Popped Popcorn Unpopped Popcorn、Granola Bars Granola Cereal、Slice of Pie (Wrapped) Whole Pie、Milky Way Candy Bar 、Milky Way Ice Cream BarWhat - you are sure to ask - is the tax status of a melted Milky Way ice cream bar? In that androgynous form, does it more resemble an ice cream bar or a candy bar that has been left in the sun? It's no wonder that Brad Sherman, Chairman of California's State Board of Equalization, who opposed the snack food bill but must now administer it, has said: "I came to this job as a specialist in tax law. Now I find my constituents should have elected Julia Child."

你一定会问,那融化的牛奶冰淇淋棒要不要课税呢? 在这种仿真两可的状态下,它到底是比较像冰淇淋棒还是在大太阳底下的糖果棒呢? 也难怪Brad Sherman-加州公平交易委员会的主席,虽然反对这项法案但还是必须负责监督执行,他提到我以税务专家的身分到这个委员会任职,但我觉得大家要选的对象,应该是小孩子才对。

Charlie and I have many reasons to be thankful for our association with Chuck and See's. The obvious ones are that we've earned exceptional returns and had a good time in the process. Equally important, ownership of See's has taught us much about the evaluation of franchises. We've made significant money in certain common stocks because of the lessons we learned at See's.

查理跟我有太多理由要感谢Chuck跟喜斯糖果,最明显的原因是他们帮我们赚了那么多钱,而且其间的过程是如此令人愉快,还有一点同样重要的是拥有喜斯糖果让我们对于强势的特许事业有更深一层的认识,我们靠着在喜斯身上所学的东西,在别的股票投资上,又赚了更多的钱。

H. H. Brown布朗鞋业

We made a sizable acquisition in 1991 - the H. H. Brown Company - and behind this business is an interesting history. In 1927 a 29-year-old businessman named Ray Heffernan purchased the company, then located in North Brookfield, Massachusetts, for $10,000 and began a 62-year career of running it. (He also found time for other pursuits: At age 90 he was still joining new golf clubs.) By Mr. Heffernan's retirement in early 1990 H. H. Brown had three plants in the United States and one in Canada; employed close to 2,000 people; and earned about $25 million annually before taxes.

我们在1991年做了一件大型的购并案,那就是买下布朗鞋业,这背后有一段有趣的故事,1927年时有一位29岁的年轻商人-Ray Heffernan以10,000美元买下这家公司,并把它搬到麻赛诸赛州,从此展开长达62年的事业(当然同时他还有其它追求的目标,高龄90岁的他现在还在加入新的高尔夫球俱乐部),等1990年Heffernan先生宣布退休时,布朗鞋业在美国已有三座工厂,还有另外一座在加拿大,每年的税前获利约有2,500万美元。

Along the way, Frances Heffernan, one of Ray's daughters, married Frank Rooney, who was sternly advised by Mr. Heffernan before the wedding that he had better forget any ideas he might have about working for his father-in-law. That was one of Mr. Heffernan's few mistakes: Frank went on to become CEO of Melville Shoe (now Melville Corp.). During his 23 years as boss, from 1964 through 1986, Melville's earnings averaged more than 20% on equity and its stock (adjusted for splits) rose from $16 to $960. And a few years after Frank retired, Mr. Heffernan, who had fallen ill, asked him to run Brown.

这期间Heffernan的一个女儿Frances嫁给了Frank Rooney,当时Heffernan严正地告诉他的女婿最好断了想要参与经营布朗鞋业的念头,但这却是Heffernan先生所犯下的少数错误之一,Frank后来跑到另外一家鞋业Melville担任CEO,在他从1964年到1986年担任主管的期间,Mellville每年的股东权益报酬高达20%,而股价更从16元涨到960元(经过还原后),而在Frank退休多年后,Heffernan先生因为生病,才叫Frank回来经营布朗鞋业。

After Mr. Heffernan died late in 1990, his family decided to sell the company - and here we got lucky. I had known Frank for a few years but not well enough for him to think of Berkshire as a possible buyer. He instead gave the assignment of selling Brown to a major investment banker, which failed also to think of us. But last spring Frank was playing golf in Florida with John Loomis, a long-time friend of mine as well as a Berkshire shareholder, who is always on the alert for something that might fit us. Hearing about the impending sale of Brown, John told Frank that the company should be right up Berkshire's alley, and Frank promptly gave me a call. I thought right away that we would make a deal and before long it was done.

之后在1990年Heffernan先生过世,他的家人决定要把公司卖掉,所以我们的机会就来了,那时我们认识Frank也有好几年了,但没有好到让他认为Berkshire是布朗鞋业合适的买主,反而他把卖公司的事交给一家投资银行来负责,可想而知投资银行绝对不会想到我们,但是就在去年春天,Frank跟John Loomis一起到佛罗里达打高尔夫球,John是我多年的好友,同时也是Berkshire的股东,他总是随时注意有没有适合我们投资的对象,在听到布朗鞋业即将出售的消息之后,John告诉Frank说这家公司应该要投到Berkshire的麾下,而Frank也从善如流马上打了通电话给我,我当下觉得我们应该可以谈得成,果然在不久之后,整个交易便确定了。

Much of my enthusiasm for this purchase came from Frank's willingness to continue as CEO. Like most of our managers, he has no financial need to work but does so because he loves the game and likes to excel. Managers of this stripe cannot be "hired" in the normal sense of the word. What we must do is provide a concert hall in which business artists of this class will wish to perform.

我之所以会对这项交易这么感兴趣的原因在于Frank愿意继续留下来担任CEO,就像我们其它所有经理人一样,他不需要因为经济因素而继续工作,但他确实热爱这项任务且做的很好,这类型的经理人可不是三言两语就可以"请"得到的,我们能做的就是尽量提供一个够水准的演奏厅,让这些商业界的天才艺术家可以在这里好好发挥。

Brown (which, by the way, has no connection to Brown Shoe of St. Louis) is the leading North American manufacturer of work shoes and boots, and it has a history of earning unusually fine margins on sales and assets. Shoes are a tough business - of the billion pairs purchased in the United States each year, about 85% are imported - and most manufacturers in the industry do poorly. The wide range of styles and sizes that producers offer causes inventories to be heavy; substantial capital is also tied up in receivables. In this kind of environment, only outstanding managers like Frank and the group developed by Mr. Heffernan can prosper.

布朗(跟圣路易的布朗鞋子完全没有关系)是北美地区工作鞋与工作靴的领导品牌,同时拥有非凡的销售毛利与资产报酬,事实上鞋子产业竞争相当地激烈,在全美一年10亿双的采购量中,大约有85%是从国外进口,而产业中大部分的制造工厂表现都乏善可陈,由于款式与型号繁多导致库存压力相当重,同时资金也绑在大笔的应收帐款,在这样的环境底下,只有像Frank这样优秀的经理人再加上Heffernan先生所建立这样的事业才有可能生存。

A distinguishing characteristic of H. H. Brown is one of the most unusual compensation systems I've encountered - but one that warms my heart: A number of key managers are paid an annual salary of $7,800, to which is added a designated percentage of the profits of the company after these are reduced by a charge for capital employed. These managers therefore truly stand in the shoes of owners. In contrast, most managers talk the talk but don't walk the walk, choosing instead to employ compensation systems that are long on carrots but short on sticks (and that almost invariably treat equity capital as if it were cost-free). The arrangement at Brown, in any case, has served both the company and its managers exceptionally well, which should be no surprise: Managers eager to bet heavily on their abilities usually have plenty of ability to bet on.

布朗鞋业有一个相当与众不同的特点,那就是它的薪资奖赏制度与我之前看到的完全不同,不过却深得我心,公司主要的经理人每年的底薪只有7,800美元,之后再依据公司每年的获利,乘以一个事先订定的百分比,并扣除运用资金的成本,因此我们可以说这些经理人完全是与股东站在同一条船上,相对于一般说归说、做归做的经理人,选择运用红萝卜长,杆子短的薪资报酬制度(总是把股东所提供的资金当作是不用成本的),事实证明布朗鞋业这样的安排,不论在任何情况下,对于公司与经理人都绝对有利,胆敢依恃个人能力来做赌注的经理人,绝对有相当的能力来下赌。

It's discouraging to note that though we have on four occasions made major purchases of companies whose sellers were represented by prominent investment banks, we were in only one of these instances contacted by the investment bank. In the other three cases, I myself or a friend initiated the transaction at some point after the investment bank had solicited its own list of prospects. We would love to see an intermediary earn its fee by thinking of us - and therefore repeat here what we're looking for:

很令人失望的是虽然我们有四个主要的投资个案的卖方是透过著名的投资银行所介绍,但却只有一家是真正由投资银行主动联系我们的,其它三个案子都是在投资银行寻求其名单上的买主不成后,由我本人或是朋友促成最后的交易,我们很希望中间人在赚取其佣金收入的同时,还能够想到我们的存在,以下就是我们想要找的企业条件

(1) Large purchases (at least $10 million of after-tax earnings),

(2) Demonstrated consistent earning power (future projections are of little interest to us, nor are "turnaround" situations),

(3) Businesses earning good returns on equity while employing little or no debt,

(4) Management in place (we can't supply it),

(5) Simple businesses (if there's lots of technology, we won't understand it),

(6) An offering price (we don't want to waste our time or that of the seller by talking, even preliminarily, about a transaction when price is unknown).

(1)巨额交易(每年税后盈余至少有一千万美元)
(2)持续稳定获利(我们对有远景或具转机的公司没兴趣)
(3)高股东报酬率(并且甚少举债)
(4)具备管理阶层(我们无法提供)
(5)简单的企业(若牵涉到太多高科技,我们弄不懂)
(6)合理的价格(在价格不确定前,我们不希望浪费自己与对方太多时间)

We will not engage in unfriendly takeovers. We can promise complete confidentiality and a very fast answer - customarily within five minutes - as to whether we're interested. (With Brown, we didn't even need to take five.) We prefer to buy for cash, but will consider issuing stock when we receive as much in intrinsic business value as we give.

我们不会进行敌意的购并,并承诺完全保密并尽快答复是否感兴趣(通常不超过五分钟),像是布朗鞋业这样的案子根本就不要五分钟,我们倾向采现金交易,除非我们所换得的内含价值跟我们付出的一样多,否则不考虑发行股份。

Our favorite form of purchase is one fitting the pattern through which we acquired Nebraska Furniture Mart, Fechheimer's and Borsheim's. In cases like these, the company's owner-managers wish to generate significant amounts of cash, sometimes for themselves, but often for their families or inactive shareholders. At the same time, these managers wish to remain significant owners who continue to run their companies just as they have in the past. We think we offer a particularly good fit for owners with such objectives and we invite potential sellers to check us out by contacting people with whom we have done business in the past.

我们最喜欢的交易对象之一是像B太太- Heldman家族那样,公司经营者希望能马上有一大笔现金,不管是给自己、家人或是其它股东,最好这些经营者如往常一样能够继续留在公司,我想我们可以提供具有以上想法的经营者,一个满意的方式,我们也欢迎可能的卖方与那些过去与我们合作过的对象打听。

Charlie and I frequently get approached about acquisitions that don't come close to meeting our tests: We've found that if you advertise an interest in buying collies, a lot of people will call hoping to sell you their cocker spaniels. A line from a country song expresses our feeling about new ventures, turnarounds, or auction-like sales: "When the phone don't ring, you'll know it's me."

另一方面查理跟我也常常接到一些不符合我们条件的询问,包括新事业、转机股、拍卖案以及最常见的中介案。我们发现如果你登广告要买牧羊犬,结果却有一大堆人打电话来要卖你长耳猎犬,对于这类的事业,有首乡村歌曲其中的一句歌词最能描述我们的感觉,「若电话不响,你就知道那是我」。

Besides being interested in the purchase of businesses as described above, we are also interested in the negotiated purchase of large, but not controlling, blocks of stock comparable to those we hold in Capital Cities, Salomon, Gillette, USAir, Champion, and American Express. We are not interested, however, in receiving suggestions about purchases we might make in the general stock market.

除了以上买下整家公司的购并案外,我们也会考虑买进一大部份不具控制权的股份,就像我们在资本城、所罗门、吉列、美国航空、冠军企业与美国运通这几个Case一样的公司,不过对于一般直接从股票市场上买进股份的建议我们,则一点兴趣都没有。

Insurance Operations保险业营运

Shown below is an updated version of our usual table presenting key figures for the property-casualty insurance industry:

下表是产物意外险业的最新的几项重要指数

Yearly Change Combined Ratio Yearly Change Inflation Rate in Premiums After Policyholder in Incurred Measured by

Written (%) Dividends Losses (%) GDP Deflator (%)


1981
 
1982
 
1983
 
1984
 
1985
 
1986
 
1987
 
1988
 
1989
 
1990(Revised)
 
1991 (Est.)
 

3.8
 
3.7
 
5.0
 
8.5
 
22.1
 
22.2
 
9.4
 
4.4
 
3.2
 
4.4
 
3.1
 

106.0
 
109.6
 
112.0
 
118.0
 
116.3
 
108.0
 
104.6
 
105.4
 
109.6
 
109.6
 
109.1
 

6.5
 
8.4
 
6.8
 
16.9
 
16.1
 
13.5
 
7.8
 
5.5
 
4.8
 
4.8
 
2.9
 

10.0
 
6.2
 
4.0
 
4.5
 
3.7
 
2.7
 
3.1
 
3.9
 
4.1
 
4.1
 
3.7
 

The combined ratio represents total insurance costs (losses incurred plus expenses) compared to revenue from premiums: A ratio below 100 indicates an underwriting profit, and one above 100 indicates a loss. The higher the ratio, the worse the year. When the investment income that an insurer earns from holding policyholders' funds ("the float") is taken into account, a combined ratio in the 107 - 111 range typically produces an overall break-even result, exclusive of earnings on the funds provided by shareholders.

综合比率代表保险的总成本(理赔损失加上费用)占保费收入的比例,比率在100以下代表有承保的损失,在100以上则代表有承保的获利综合比率代表的是保险的总成本(损失加上费用)占保费收入的比率,100以下代表会有承销利益,100以上代表会有承销损失,若把持有保费收入浮存金(扣除股东权益部份所产生的盈余)所产生的投资收益列入考量,损益两平的范围大概是在107-111之间。

For the reasons laid out in previous reports, we expect the industry's incurred losses to grow at close to 10% annually, even in periods when general inflation runs considerably lower. (Over the last 25 years, incurred losses have in reality grown at a still faster rate, 11%.) If premium growth meanwhile materially lags that 10% rate, underwriting losses will mount.

基于前几次年报所说明的理由,即使是通货膨胀在这几年来相对温和,我们预期保险业每年损失增加的比率约在10%左右,若是保费收入成长没有到达10%以上,损失一定会增加,(事实上过去25年以来,理赔损失系以11%的速度在成长),若是保费收入还是大幅落后于10%的门槛,承保损失一定会继续增加。

However, the industry's tendency to under-reserve when business turns bad may obscure the picture for a time - and that could well describe the situation last year. Though premiums did not come close to growing 10%, the combined ratio failed to deteriorate as I had expected but instead slightly improved. Loss-reserve data for the industry indicate that there is reason to be skeptical of that outcome, and it may turn out that 1991's ratio should have been worse than was reported. In the long run, of course, trouble awaits managements that paper over operating problems with accounting maneuvers. Eventually, managements of this kind achieve the same result as the seriously-ill patient who tells his doctor: "I can't afford the operation, but would you accept a small payment to touch up the x-rays?"

然而产业普遍存在损失准备提列不足的现象,使得企业前景不佳的情况可以获得暂时的掩饰,这正是去年度所发生的事,虽然保费收入成长不到10%,但综合比率非但没有像我所预测地那样恶化反而还有点改善,损失准备的统计资料显示这样的现象实在是相当令人怀疑,这种结果也可能导致1991年的比率将更进一步恶化,当然就长期而言,这些利用会计手法掩盖营运问题的经理人还是要面对真正的麻烦,到最后这类的经理人会变得跟许多病入膏肓的病人对医生说的一样:「我实在是承受不起另一次手术,不过你是否可以考虑把我的X光片给补一补」。

Berkshire's insurance business has changed in ways that make combined ratios, our own or the industry's, largely irrelevant to our performance. What counts with us is the "cost of funds developed from insurance," or in the vernacular, "the cost of float."

于是Berkshire旗下的保险事业将与公司本身或产业经营绩效越来越不相关的综合比率做了一番修正,对我们来说真正重要的是我们从保险业所得到的资金的成本,套句行话就是浮存金的成本。

Float - which we generate in exceptional amounts - is the total of loss reserves, loss adjustment expense reserves and unearned premium reserves minus agents balances, prepaid acquisition costs and deferred charges applicable to assumed reinsurance. And the cost of float is measured by our underwriting loss.

浮存金-我们靠保险业所取得大量的资金,系指将所有的损失准备、损失费用调整准备与未赚取保费加总后,再扣除应付佣金、预付购并成本及相关再保递延费用,至于浮存金的成本则是以我们所发生的承保损失来衡量。

The table below shows our cost of float since we entered the business in 1967.

下表是我们在1967年进入保险业后,浮存金的成本统计:

(1) (2) Yearend YieldUnderwriting Approximate on Long-TermLoss Average Float Cost of Funds Govt. Bonds

(承保损失) (平均浮存金) (平均资金成本) (长期公债殖利率)

 (In $ Millions) (Ratio of 1 to 2)


1967
 
profit $17.3 less than zero 5.50%
 
1980
 
profit 237.0 less than zero 11.94%
 

1968
 
profit 19.9 less than zero 5.90%
 
1981
 
profit 228.4 less than zero 13.61%
 

1969
 
profit 23.4 less than zero 6.79%
 
1982
 
21.56 220.6 9.77% 10.64%
 

1970
 
$0.37 32.4 1.14% 6.25%
 
1983
 
33.87 231.3 14.64% 11.84%
 

1971
 
profit 52.5 less than zero 5.81%
 
1984
 
48.06 253.2 18.98% 11.58%
 

1972
 
profit 69.5 less than zero 5.82%
 
1985
 
44.23 390.2 11.34% 9.34%
 

1973
 
profit 73.3 less than zero 7.27%
 
1986
 
55.84 797.5 7.00% 7.60%
 

1974
 
7.36 79.1 9.30% 8.13%
 
1987
 
55.43 1,266.7 4.38% 8.95%
 

1975
 
11.35 87.6 12.96% 8.03%
 
1988
 
11.08 1,497.7 0.74% 9.00%
 

1976
 
profit 102.6 less than zero 7.30%
 
1989
 
24.40 1,541.3 1.58% 7.97%
 

1977
 
profit 139.0 less than zero 7.97%
 
1990
 
26.65 1,637.3 1.63% 8.24%
 

1978
 
profit 190.4 less than zero 8.93%
 
1991
 
119.6 1,895.0 6.31% 7.40%
 

1979
 
profit 227.3 less than zero 10.08%
 
 
 
 
 

As you can see, our cost of funds in 1991 was well below the U. S. Government's cost on newly-issued long-term bonds. We have in fact beat the government's rate in 20 of the 25 years we have been in the insurance business, often by a wide margin. We have over that time also substantially increased the amount of funds we hold, which counts as a favorable development but only because the cost of funds has been satisfactory. Our float should continue to grow; the challenge will be to garner these funds at a reasonable cost.

各位可以看到我们1991年的资金成本甚至比美国政府新发行的长期公债利率还低,事实上在过去25年的保险事业经营中,我们有20年是远胜于政府公债发行利率,而且差距的幅度通常都相当可观,同时所持有的浮存金数量也以惊人的幅度成长,当然这只有在资金成本低的情况下,才称得上是好现象,展望未来,浮存金的数量还会继续成长,对我们而言,最大的挑战是这些资金是否能有合理的成本取得。

Berkshire continues to be a very large writer - perhaps the largest in the world - of "super-cat" insurance, which is coverage that other insurance companies buy to protect themselves against major catastrophic losses. Profits in this business are enormously volatile. As I mentioned last year, $100 million in super-cat premiums, which is roughly our annual expectation, could deliver us anything from a $100 million profit (in a year with no big catastrophe) to a $200 million loss (in a year in which a couple of major hurricanes and/or earthquakes come along).

Berkshire一直都是霹雳猫保单相当大的发行公司,或许规模已是全世界最大的,这类保单通常是由其它保险公司买来分散他们本身在重大意外事故所需承担的风险,这类保险的获利情况变化相当的大,就像是去年我曾经提过的,一亿美元的保费收入,这大约是我们预期一年所能接到的业务量,可能可以让我们有一亿美元的获利(只要当年度没有重大灾害发生),也可能让我们产生二亿美元的损失(只要当年度发生连续几个飓风或地震)。

We price this business expecting to pay out, over the long term, about 90% of the premiums we receive. In any given year, however, we are likely to appear either enormously profitable or enormously unprofitable. That is true in part because GAAP accounting does not allow us to set up reserves in the catastrophe-free years for losses that are certain to be experienced in other years. In effect, a one-year accounting cycle is ill-suited to the nature of this business - and that is a reality you should be aware of when you assess our annual results.

当我们在订价时,长期而言我们预期只要支付出90%收到的保费收入,当然在任何一个特定年度,我们可能大赚或是大亏,一部份的原因在于一般公认会计原则并不允许我们在没有重大灾害发生的年度提拨损失准备,以弥补其它年度一定会发生的损失,事实上以一年为期的会计期间并不适合这类的保险业务,所以换句话说当你在评断我们公司的年度绩效时,一定要特别注意到这一点。

Last year there appears to have been, by our definition, one super-cat, but it will trigger payments from only about 25% of our policies. Therefore, we currently estimate the 1991 underwriting profit from our catastrophe business to have been about $11 million. (You may be surprised to learn the identity of the biggest catastrophe in 1991: It was neither the Oakland fire nor Hurricane Bob, but rather a September typhoon in Japan that caused the industry an insured loss now estimated at about $4-$5 billion. At the higher figure, the loss from the typhoon would surpass that from Hurricane Hugo, the previous record-holder.)

去年照我们的定义可能会有一件霹雳猫保单要付上我们年度保费收入的25%,因此我们预计1991年这类业务的承保获利大约是1,100万美元(或许你很好奇想要知道1991年所发生的最大灾害是什么? 它既不是奥克兰大火也不是Bob飓风,而是九月在日本发生的台风造成的损失估计在40-50亿美元上下,若以上限估计,这个数字将超过Hugo飓风先前所创下的最高损失记录)。

Insurers will always need huge amounts of reinsurance protection for marine and aviation disasters as well as for natural catastrophes. In the 1980's much of this reinsurance was supplied by "innocents" - that is, by insurers that did not understand the risks of the business - but they have now been financially burned beyond recognition. (Berkshire itself was an innocent all too often when I was personally running the insurance operation.) Insurers, though, like investors, eventually repeat their mistakes. At some point - probably after a few catastrophe-scarce years - innocents will reappear and prices for super-cat policies will plunge to silly levels.

保险业者总会需要大量的再保险来规避航海与航空以及天然灾害等意外事故,在1980年代许多再保险保单都是由外行人来承接,这些人根本就不知道这类保险的风险有多高,所以现在他们已经被烫的不省人事,(就连Berkshire在本人经营这项业务时也是如此),保险业者如同投资人一样,还是会一再重复所发生的错误,只要有一、两年意外灾害较少,就会有无知的业者跳出来以极低的价格杀价竞争抢单。

As long as apparently-adequate rates prevail, however, we will be a major participant in super-cat coverages. In marketing this product, we enjoy a significant competitive advantage because of our premier financial strength. Thinking insurers know that when "the big one" comes, many reinsurers who found it easy to write policies will find it difficult to write checks. (Some reinsurers can say what Jackie Mason does: "I'm fixed for life - as long as I don't buy anything.") Berkshire's ability to fulfill all its commitments under conditions of even extreme adversity is unquestioned.

然而只要市场上费率看起来合理,我们就会继续留在这一行里,而在推销这类保单时,我们所拥有的最大竞争优势就是我们的财务实力,有远见的客户都知道许多再保业者可以很轻松地接下保单,但是当重大的意外灾害接连发生时,要他们支付赔偿金可能就有点困难,(有些再保业者就像Jackie Mason所说的一样,我可以一辈子不花钱,只要我不买任何东西),相对地Berkshire在任何极端的状况下,都能够履行他所做出的承诺。

Overall, insurance offers Berkshire its greatest opportunities. Mike Goldberg has accomplished wonders with this operation since he took charge and it has become a very valuable asset, albeit one that can't be appraised with any precision.

总的来说,保险业提供Berkshire相当大的机会,Mike Goldberg在他接手这项业务之后,就一直缔造出优异的成绩,也使得保险子公司成为我们非常宝贵的资产,虽然我们无法以精确的数字来衡量。

Marketable Common Stocks有价证券股票投资

On the next page we list our common stock holdings having avalue of over $100 million. A small portion of these investments belongs to subsidiaries of which Berkshire owns less than 100%.

下表是我们超过一亿美元以上的普通股投资,一部份的投资系属于Berkshire关系企业所持有)。

Shares Company Cost Market(000s omitted) 12/31/91


3,000,000
 
46,700,000
 
2,495,200
 
6,850,000
 
24,000,000
 
31,247,000
 
1,727,765
 
5,000,000
 

Capital Cities/ABC, Inc.
 
The Coca-Cola Company
 
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp
 
GEICO Corp
 
The Gillette Company
 
Guinness PLC
 
The Washington Post Company
 
Wells Fargo & Company
 

$ 517,500
 
1,023,920
 
77,245
 
45,713
 
600,000
 
264,782
 
9,731
 
289,431
 

$1,300,500
 
3,747,675
 
343,090
 
1,363,150
 
1,347,000
 
296,755
 
336,050
 
290,000

 
 

As usual the list reflects our Rip Van Winkle approach to investing. Guinness is a new position. But we held the other seven stocks a year ago (making allowance for the conversion of our Gillette position from preferred to common) and in six of those we hold an unchanged number of shares. The exception is Federal Home Loan Mortgage ("Freddie Mac"), in which our shareholdings increased slightly. Our stay-put behavior reflects our view that the stock market serves as a relocation center at which money is moved from the active to the patient. (With tongue only partly in check, I suggest that recent events indicate that the much-maligned "idle rich" have received a bad rap: They have maintained or increased their wealth while many of the "energetic rich" - aggressive real estate operators, corporate acquirers, oil drillers, etc. - have seen their fortunes disappear.)

一如往常,以上这张表显示我们李伯大梦式的投资方式,健力士Guinness是我们最新的投资部位,至于其它七项主要的投资都持有一年以上(如果把吉列从特别股转换成普通股也包含在内的话),其中六项投资甚至连持股数都没有变动,唯一的例外是联邦家庭贷款抵押(Freddie Mac),我们投资的股数略微增加,我们以不变应万变的做法主要是反应我们把股票市场当作是财富重分配的中心,而钱通常由积极的份子流到有耐性的投资人手中,(我嘴巴可能闭的不够紧,我认为最近几件事情显示许多躺着赚的有钱人招到许多攻击,因为他们好象没做什么事就使得本身的财富暴涨,而在此同时过去那些积极活跃的有钱人,如房地产大亨、企业购并家与石油钻探大亨等,却眼睁睁地看着自己的财产一点一滴地缩水)。

Our Guinness holding represents Berkshire's first significant investment in a company domiciled outside the United States. Guinness, however, earns its money in much the same fashion as Coca-Cola and Gillette, U.S.-based companies that garner most of their profits from international operations. Indeed, in the sense of where they earn their profits - continent-by-continent - Coca-Cola and Guinness display strong similarities. (But you'll never get their drinks confused - and your Chairman remains unmovably in the Cherry Coke camp.)

我们在健力士Guinness的持股代表Berkshire第一次对海外公司进行大规模的投资,不过Guinness所赚的钱与可口可乐、吉列刮胡刀等美国公司却极为类似,主要都是仰赖国际部门的营运,确实以国际性的眼光来看,Guinness与可口可乐的获利来源有相当的共通性,(但是大家绝对不能将自己最爱的饮料搞混掉,像我个人的最爱依旧是樱桃可口可乐)。

We continually search for large businesses with understandable, enduring and mouth-watering economics that are run by able and shareholder-oriented managements. This focus doesn't guarantee results: We both have to buy at a sensible price and get business performance from our companies that validates our assessment. But this investment approach - searching for the superstars - offers us our only chance for real success. Charlie and I are simply not smart enough, considering the large sums we work with, to get great results by adroitly buying and selling portions of far-from-great businesses. Nor do we think many others can achieve long-term investment success by flitting from flower to flower. Indeed, we believe that according the name "investors" to institutions that trade actively is like calling someone who repeatedly engages in one-night stands a romantic.

我们还是持续地在寻找大型的企业,那种令人容易了解、具有持续性且让人垂涎三尺的事业,并且由有能力才干并以股东利益为优先的经营阶层,虽然这些要求的重点并不一定保证结果就一定令人满意,当然我们一定要以合理的价格投资并且确保我们的被投资公司绩效表现与我们当初所评估的一致,这样的投资方法-寻找产业的超级明星,是我们唯一能够成功的机会,查理跟我的天资实在是有限,以我们目前操作的资金规模,实在是无法靠着买卖一些平凡普通的企业来赚取足够的利益,当然我们也不认为其它人就有办法以这种小蜜蜂飞到西、飞到东的方法成功,事实上我们认为将这些短线进出如此频繁的法人机构称为投资人,就好象是把一个每天寻找一夜情的花花公子称作为浪漫情人一样。

If my universe of business possibilities was limited, say, to private companies in Omaha, I would, first, try to assess the long-term economic characteristics of each business; second, assess the quality of the people in charge of running it; and, third, try to buy into a few of the best operations at a sensible price. I certainly would not wish to own an equal part of every business in town. Why, then, should Berkshire take a different tack when dealing with the larger universe of public companies? And since finding great businesses and outstanding managers is so difficult, why should we discard proven products? (I was tempted to say "the real thing.") Our motto is: "If at first you do succeed, quit trying."

今天假设我的投资天地仅限于比如说奥玛哈地区的私人企业,那么首先我们仔细地评估每家企业长期的竞争力,第二我会再评估经营者的特质,之后再以合理的价格买进一小部份的股权,既然我不可能雨露均沾地去买镇上所有公司的股权,那么为什么Berkshire在面对全美一大堆上市大公司时,就要采取不同的态度,也因为要找到好的事业并加上好的经理人是如此的困难,那么为什么我们要拋弃那些已经被证明过的投资对象呢? (通常我喜欢把它们称做是狠角色),我们的座右铭是如果你第一次就成功了,那就不要费力再去试别的了。

John Maynard Keynes, whose brilliance as a practicing investor matched his brilliance in thought, wrote a letter to a business associate, F. C. Scott, on August 15, 1934 that says it all: "As time goes on, I get more and more convinced that the right method in investment is to put fairly large sums into enterprises which one thinks one knows something about and in the management of which one thoroughly believes. It is a mistake to think that one limits one's risk by spreading too much between enterprises about which one knows little and has no reason for special confidence. . . . One's knowledge and experience are definitely limited and there are seldom more than two or three enterprises at any given time in which I personally feel myself entitled to put full confidence."

著名经济学家凯恩斯,他的投资绩效跟他的理论思想一样杰出,在1934年8月15日他曾经写了一封信给生意伙伴Scott上面写到,随着时光的流逝,我越来越相信正确的投资方式是将大部分的资金投入在自己认为了解且相信的事业之上,而不是将资金分散到自己不懂且没有特别信心的一大堆公司,每个人的知识与经验一定有其限度,就我本身而言,我很难同时有两三家以上的公司可以让我感到完全的放心。

Mistake Du Jour实时供应的错误

In the 1989 annual report I wrote about "Mistakes of the First 25 Years" and promised you an update in 2015. My experiences in the first few years of this second "semester" indicate that my backlog of matters to be discussed will become unmanageable if I stick to my original plan. Therefore, I will occasionally unburden myself in these pages in the hope that public confession may deter further bumblings. (Post-mortems prove useful for hospitals and football teams; why not for businesses and investors?)

在1989年的年报中,我曾经写过Berkshire头25所犯的错误,而且承诺在2015年还会再有更新的报告,但是第二阶段的头几年让我觉得若是坚持原来的计画的话,可能让这些记录多到难以管理,因此我决定每隔一段时间会在这里丢出一点东西,所谓自首无罪,抓到双倍,希望我公开的忏悔能够免于大家继续对我的轰炸(不管是医院的死后验尸或是足球队常常用到的事后检讨,我想应该也能够适用在企业与投资人之上)。

Typically, our most egregious mistakes fall in the omission, rather than the commission, category. That may spare Charlie and me some embarrassment, since you don't see these errors; but their invisibility does not reduce their cost. In this mea culpa, I am not talking about missing out on some company that depends upon an esoteric invention (such as Xerox), high-technology (Apple), or even brilliant merchandising (Wal-Mart). We will never develop the competence to spot such businesses early. Instead I refer to business situations that Charlie and I can understand and that seem clearly attractive - but in which we nevertheless end up sucking our thumbs rather than buying.

通常我们很多重大的错误不是发生在我们已经做的部份,而是在于我们没有去做的那部份,虽然因为各位看不到这些失误,所以查理跟我可以少一点难堪,但看不到不代表我们就不必付出代价,而这些我公开承认的错误,并不是指我错过了某些革命性的新发明(就像是全录像印技术)、高科技(像是苹果计算机)或是更优秀的通路零售商(像是威名百货),我们永远不可能拥有在早期发掘这些优秀公司的能力,反而我指的是那些查理跟我可以很容易就了解且很明显对我们有吸引力的公司,无奈在当时我们只是不断地咬着指甲犹豫不决,就是不能下定决心把他们买下来。

Every writer knows it helps to use striking examples, but I wish the one I now present wasn't quite so dramatic: In early 1988, we decided to buy 30 million shares (adjusted for a subsequent split) of Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae), which would have been a $350-$400 million investment. We had owned the stock some years earlier and understood the company's business. Furthermore, it was clear to us that David Maxwell, Fannie Mae's CEO, had dealt superbly with some problems that he had inherited and had established the company as a financial powerhouse - with the best yet to come. I visited David in Washington and confirmed that he would not be uncomfortable if we were to take a large position.

每位作者都知道,要让读者了解其意思最好的方式就是举个例子,不过希望我现在举的例子不会过于极端,回顾1988年当时我们决定以3.5亿到4亿美元之间,买进3,000万股(经过事后的分割调整)的联邦国家贷款协会,简称Fannie Mae,我们之前曾经拥有过这家公司的股份,也对其所处的产业相当了解,另外很显然的,也很清楚David Maxwell也就是Fannie Mae的总裁,有能力处理他所接下的一堆问题,同时进一步将公司建立成为一个金融巨擘,一切可说是前景看好,为此我还特地到华盛顿拜访David,确认他对于我们持有该公司一大部分的股权不会感到任何的不愉快。

After we bought about 7 million shares, the price began to climb. In frustration, I stopped buying (a mistake that, thankfully, I did not repeat when Coca-Cola stock rose similarly during our purchase program). In an even sillier move, I surrendered to my distaste for holding small positions and sold the 7 million shares we owned.

只不过当我们开始买进不到700万股时,该公司股价就开始上涨,失望之余,我立刻停止买进(事后回想还好我没有在买进可口可乐时犯下相同的错误),更有甚者,我觉得区区700万股对我们来说实在是没有太大的意义,所以之后又把持有的700万股全部卖掉。

I wish I could give you a halfway rational explanation for my amateurish behavior vis-a-vis Fannie Mae. But there isn't one. What I can give you is an estimate as of yearend 1991 of the approximate gain that Berkshire didn't make because of your Chairman's mistake: about $1.4 billion.

我期盼对于我这样不具职业水准的投资行为可以给各位一个稍微合理一点的解释,不过我实在是编不出来,不过我倒是可以跟各位报告因为本人的这项错误,大概使得Berkshire在1991年少赚了14亿美元。

Fixed-Income Securities固定收益证券

We made several significant changes in our fixed-income portfolio during 1991. As I noted earlier, our Gillette preferred was called for redemption, which forced us to convert to common stock; we eliminated our holdings of an RJR Nabisco issue that was subject to an exchange offer and subsequent call; and we purchased fixed-income securities of American Express and First Empire State Corp., a Buffalo-based bank holding company. We also added to a small position in ACF Industries that we had established in late 1990. Our largest holdings at yearend were:

1991年我们在固定收益证券这方面的投资有很大的变动,如同先前曾提到的我们的吉列可转换特别股被强制赎回,使得我们必须将之转换为普通股,另外我们也出清了RJR Nabisco的债券,因为它在被转换后赎回,在另一方面我们也买进美国运通与第一帝国-一家水牛城的银行控股公司的固定收益证券,此外还在1990年底买进了一些ACF工业的债券,以下是截至年底我们持有的主要部位:

(000s omitted) Cost of Preferreds andIssuer Amortized Value of Bonds Market


ACF Industries
 
American Express
 
Champion International
 
First Empire State
 
RJR Nabisco
 
Salomon
 
USAir
 
Washington Public Power Systems
 

$ 93,918(2)
 
300,000
 
300,000(2)
 
40,000
 
222,148(2)
 
700,000(2)
 
358,000(2)
 
158,553(2)
 

$118,683
 
263,265(1)(2)
 
300,000(1)
 
50,000(1)(2)
 
285,683
 
714,000(1)
 
232,700(1)
 
203,071
 

(1)Fair value as determined by Charlie and me (1)公平价值是由查理跟我来判断

(2) Carrying value in our financial statements (2)是指财务报表上的帐面价值

Our $40 million of First Empire State preferred carries a 9% coupon, is non-callable until 1996 and is convertible at $78.91 per share. Normally I would think a purchase of this size too small for Berkshire, but I have enormous respect for Bob Wilmers, CEO of First Empire, and like being his partner on any scale.

我们在第一帝国9%收益率的特别股投资了4,000万美元,在1996年前公司无法赎回,每股转换价格订为78.91美元,通常我会认为这样的规模对于Berkshire来说实在是太小了,但由于我们对于该公司总裁Bob Wilmers实在是过于崇敬,所以不管金额大小,还是希望有机会能与他一起合伙共事。

Our American Express preferred is not a normal fixed-income security. Rather it is a "Perc," which carries a fixed dividend of 8.85% on our $300 million cost. Absent one exception mentioned later, our preferred must be converted three years after issuance, into a maximum of 12,244,898 shares. If necessary, a downward adjustment in the conversion ratio will be made in order to limit to $414 million the total value of the common we receive. Though there is thus a ceiling on the value of the common stock that we will receive upon conversion, there is no floor. The terms of the preferred, however, include a provision allowing us to extend the conversion date by one year if the common stock is below $24.50 on the third anniversary of our purchase.

至于美国运通的投资则不是一般的固定收益证券,它算是一种Perc-每年可以为我们3亿美元的投资贡献8.85%的股利收入,除了接下来会提到的一个特点,那就是我们的特别股在发行后的三年可以转换成最多12,244,898股的普通股,若有必要我们可转换的股份可能会向下调整,以确定我们所收到的股份总值不能够超过4.14亿美元,虽然对于可能取得的普通股价值有其上限,但相对地却没有下限,不过这样的特别条款还包含若是三年期限到时公司股价低于24.5美元时,可以有权请求延长转换期限一年。

Overall, our fixed-income investments have treated us well, both over the long term and recently. We have realized large capital gains from these holdings, including about $152 million in 1991. Additionally, our after-tax yields have considerably exceeded those earned by most fixed-income portfolios.

总的来说,不管最近或是是长期而言,我们在固定收益证券上的投资表现还算不错,靠着这样的投资我们赚取大量的资本利得,在1991年这个数字大约在1.52亿美元左右,此外我们的税后投资报酬率也远高于一般的固定收益证券。

Nevertheless, we have had some surprises, none greater than the need for me to involve myself personally and intensely in the Salomon situation. As I write this letter, I am also writing a letter for inclusion in Salomon's annual report and I refer you to that report for an update on the company. (Write to: Corporate Secretary, Salomon Inc, Seven World Trade Center, New York, NY 10048) Despite the company's travails, Charlie and I believe our Salomon preferred stock increased slightly in value during 1991. Lower interest rates and a higher price for Salomon's common produced this result.

不过在这期间也发生一些小意外,当然没有像所罗门事件那样让我本人都跳进去,当我在撰写这封信时,我也同时写了一封信要放在所罗门的年度报告之内,我顺便提出来算是对于该公司近况的一份报告,(写给纽约第七世贸大楼所罗门公司),虽然公司遭逢不幸,但查理跟我都相信,目前低利率的环境加上所罗门普通股的股价回升,使我们在所罗门的特别股价值已略见增加。

Last year I told you that our USAir investment "should work out all right unless the industry is decimated during the next few years." Unfortunately 1991 was a decimating period for the industry, as Midway, Pan Am and America West all entered bankruptcy. (Stretch the period to 14 months and you can add Continental and TWA.)

去年我曾告诉各位除非航空业的经营环境在未来几年内加速恶化,否则我们在美国航空的投资应该可以有不错的结果,不过很不幸的随着中美、泛美与美西航空相继倒闭,1991年正是航空业加速恶化的一年,(若是把时间延长为14个月,则还要包括大陆航空与TWA两家航空公司)。

The low valuation that we have given USAir in our table reflects the risk that the industry will remain unprofitable for virtually all participants in it, a risk that is far from negligible. The risk is heightened by the fact that the courts have been encouraging bankrupt carriers to continue operating. These carriers can temporarily charge fares that are below the industry's costs because the bankrupts don't incur the capital costs faced by their solvent brethren and because they can fund their losses - and thereby stave off shutdown - by selling off assets. This burn-the-furniture-to-provide-firewood approach to fare-setting by bankrupt carriers contributes to the toppling of previously-marginal carriers, creating a domino effect that is perfectly designed to bring the industry to its knees.

表上我们对于在美国航空投资的评价之所以如此的低,反应出整个产业目前所面临到的获利前景不佳的风险,这个风险又因为法院鼓励已经宣布破产的航空公司继续营运而更加提高,这些同业得以用比一般成本还低的价格,因为它们完全可以不必在乎其它还咽咽一息的同业所需负担的资金成本,因为为了避免营运停摆,它们可以靠着变卖资产来弥补所发生的损失,这种拆家具拿来当材火烧的做法,有可能进一步危及其它营运还算正常的同业,然后引发骨牌效应,使得整个产业一败涂地。

Seth Schofield, who became CEO of USAir in 1991, is making major adjustments in the airline's operations in order to improve its chances of being one of the few industry survivors. There is no tougher job in corporate America than running an airline: Despite the huge amounts of equity capital that have been injected into it, the industry, in aggregate, has posted a net loss since its birth after Kitty Hawk. Airline managers need brains, guts, and experience - and Seth possesses all three of these attributes.

Seth Schofield在1991年成为美国航空公司的总裁,正对整个公司的营运做出相当重大的调整,期能增加其成为航空业仅存的几位幸存者之一,在美国没有比经营一家航空公司还要困难的行业,虽然大笔的资金已经投入到这个产业,但是从小鹰号诞生开始,航空业历史累积加总所产生的损失却是相当惊人,航空公司的经理人需要的不只是智能、勇气还要再加上经验,而毫无疑问的,Seth 同时具有以上三项的特质。

Miscellaneous其它事项

About 97.7% of all eligible shares participated in Berkshire's 1991 shareholder-designated contributions program. Contributions made through the program were $6.8 million, and 2,630 charities were recipients.

大约有97.7%的有效股权参与1991年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约680万美元捐出的款项分配给2,630家慈善机构。

We suggest that new shareholders read the description of our shareholder-designated contributions program that appears on pages 48-49. To participate in future programs, you must make sure your shares are registered in the name of the actual owner, not in the nominee name of a broker, bank or depository. Shares not so registered on August 31, 1992 will be ineligible for the 1992 program.

我们敦促新加入的股东,仔细阅读年报上有关股东捐赠计画的详细内容,如果在未来年度内,你想要参加这类的计画,我们强烈建议你将股份登记在自己而不是受托人的名下,必须在1992年8月31日之前完成登记,才有权利参与1992年的捐赠计画。

In addition to the shareholder-designated contributions that Berkshire distributes, managers of our operating businesses make contributions, including merchandise, averaging about $1.5 million annually. These contributions support local charities, such as The United Way, and produce roughly commensurate benefits for our businesses.

Berkshire除了透过股东指定捐赠计画对外捐赠之外,我们旗下事业的经理人每年也会透过公司对外捐赠,包含商品在内每年平均金额约在150万美元左右。这些捐赠主要是赞助当地像是联合劝募等慈善团体,所得的效益应该与我们所捐出的相当。

However, neither our operating managers nor officers of the parent company use Berkshire funds to make contributions to broad national programs or charitable activities of special personal interest to them, except to the extent they do so as shareholders. If your employees, including your CEO, wish to give to their alma maters or other institutions to which they feel a personal attachment, we believe they should use their own money, not yours.

然而不管是旗下事业或是母公司的经理人在利用Berkshire的资金对外捐赠给全国性组织或特别利益团体时,都是以站在股东利益立场所应该做的,相对地若是你的员工也包含CEO在内,想要与其校友会或其它人建立个人关系的,我们认为他们最好是用自己的钱,而不是从你的口袋里掏钱。

The faithful will notice that, for the first time in some years, Charlie's annual letter to Wesco shareholders is not reprinted in this report. Since his letter is relatively barebones this year, Charlie said he saw no point in including it in these pages; my own recommendation, however, is that you get a copy of the Wesco report. Simply write: Corporate Secretary, Wesco Financial Corporation, 315 East Colorado Boulevard, Pasadena, CA 91101.

死忠的巴菲特迷可能会发现,许多年来头一次大家在年报中找不到查理孟格写给Wesco股东的信,主要是因为他认为今年的报告相当阳春,所以没有必要附在我们的年报中,不过我个人还是建议,想办法写信给Wesco公司的秘书,就可以拿到Wesco的年报。

Malcolm G. Chace, Jr., now 88, has decided not to stand for election as a director this year. But the association of the Chace family with Berkshire will not end: Malcolm III (Kim), Malcolm's son, will be nominated to replace him.

现年88岁的Malcolm Chace二世,决定从今年起不再担任本公司的董事,但Berkshire与Chace家族的关系却不会断,他儿子也就是Malcolm三世会接替其位置继续担任本公司董事。

In 1931, Malcolm went to work for Berkshire Fine Spinning Associates, which merged with Hathaway Manufacturing Co. in 1955 to form our present company. Two years later, Malcolm became Berkshire Hathaway's Chairman, a position he held as well in early 1965 when he made it possible for Buffett Partnership, Ltd. to buy a key block of Berkshire stock owned by some of his relatives. This purchase gave our partnership effective control of the company. Malcolm's immediate family meanwhile kept its Berkshire stock and for the last 27 years has had the second-largest holding in the company, trailing only the Buffett family. Malcolm has been a joy to work with and we are delighted that the long-running relationship between the Chace family and Berkshire is continuing to a new generation.

1931年Malcolm进入Berkshire针织工厂工作,后来该公司在1955年与Hathaway工业合并,成为现在的Berkshire Hathaway,之后两年他接任本公司董事长的职位,直到1965年由他一手促成巴菲特合伙事业买下他与亲人大部分的股权,而使得我们成功入主该公司,之后Malcolm家族在往后的27年内继续持有本公司的股份成为仅次于巴菲特家族,本公司第二大股东,Malcolm一直是个很容易相处的伙伴,我们很高兴Chase家族与巴菲特家族的感情能够延续到下一代。

The annual meeting this year will be held at the Orpheum Theater in downtown Omaha at 9:30 a.m. on Monday, April 27, 1992. Attendance last year grew to a record 1,550, but that still leaves plenty of room at the Orpheum.

今年的股东会预计在1992年4月27日,星期一早上9点30分在位于奥玛哈市中心的Orpheum中心召开,去年股东会参加人数又创新高突破1,550人,不过会场还是剩下很多座位。

We recommend that you get your hotel reservations early at one of these hotels: (1) The Radisson-Redick Tower, a small (88 rooms) but nice hotel across the street from the Orpheum; (2) the much larger Red Lion Hotel, located about a five-minute walk from the Orpheum; or (3) the Marriott, located in West Omaha about 100 yards from Borsheim's and a twenty minute drive from downtown. We will have buses at the Marriott that will leave at 8:30 and 8:45 for the meeting and return after it ends.

我们建议大家最好先向以下旅馆预订房间(1)Radisson-Redick旅馆-就位在Orpheum中心对街拥有88个房间的一家小旅馆(2)较大一点的Red Lion旅馆-离Orpheum中心约五分钟路程,或是(3)Marriott位在奥玛哈西区,离波仙珠宝店约100公尺,开车到市中心约需20分钟,届时将会有巴士接送大家往返股东会会场。

Charlie and I always enjoy the meeting, and we hope you can make it. The quality of our shareholders is reflected in the quality of the questions we get: We have never attended an annual meeting anywhere that features such a consistently high level of intelligent, owner-related questions.

查理跟我一直都很喜欢开股东会,我也希望大家能够来参加,我们股东的素质可由大家所提出的问题看得出来,我们参加过很多股东会,但从来没有别的公司的股东像Berkshire的股东一样由高智能水准与经营者荣枯与共的股东组合。

An attachment to our proxy material explains how you can obtain the card you will need for admission to the meeting. With the admission card, we will enclose information about parking facilities located near the Orpheum. If you are driving, come a little early. Nearby lots fill up quickly and you may have to walk a few blocks.

后面附有股东会开会投票的相关资料,跟各位解释如何拿到入场所许的识别证,因为开会当天会场不好停车,我们特地为大家预留了一些位置,附件也有相关说明供大家参考。

As usual, we will have buses to take you to Nebraska Furniture Mart and Borsheim's after the meeting and to take you from there to downtown hotels or the airport later. I hope that you will allow plenty of time to fully explore the attractions of both stores. Those of you arriving early can visit the Furniture Mart any day of the week; it is open from 10 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. on Saturdays and from noon to 5:30 p.m. on Sundays. While there, stop at the See's Candy Cart and find out for yourself why Americans ate 26 million pounds of See's products last year.

一如往年,会后我们备有巴士带大家到内布拉斯加家具店与波仙珠宝店或是到饭店与机场,我希望大家能有多一点的时间好好探索这两家店的奥妙,当然早几天到的股东也可利用假日逛逛家具店,星期六从早上10点到下午5点30分,星期日则从中午开到下午5点30分,到那里时记得到喜斯糖果摊逛逛,了解一下为何美国人一年能够吞下2,600万磅的喜斯糖果。

Borsheim's normally is closed on Sunday, but we will be open for shareholders and their guests from noon to 6 p.m. on Sunday, April 26. Borsheim's will also have a special party the previous evening at which shareholders are welcome. (You must, however, write Mrs. Gladys Kaiser at our office for an invitation.) On display that evening will be a 150-year retrospective of the most exceptional timepieces made by Patek Philippe, including watches once owned by Queen Victoria, Pope Pius IX, Rudyard Kipling, Madame Curie and Albert Einstein. The centerpiece of the exhibition will be a $5 million watch whose design and manufacture required nine years of labor by Patek Philippe craftsmen. Along with the rest of the collection, this watch will be on display at the store on Sunday - unless Charlie has by then impulsively bought it.

波仙星期天通常不开门营业,但在股东会期间特别为股东与来宾开放,4月26日星期天从中午开到下午6点,同时前一天晚上还将为所有股东举行一个特别的Party,(但必须事先向我们办公室的Gladys Kaiser女士登记取得邀请函),当晚将会展示Patek Philippe过去150年来的作品回顾,包含英国维多利亚女皇、教宗Pius四世与爱因斯坦等历史名人所拥有的手表,另外会场中的重头戏是一只由Patek Philippe工匠设计打造,耗时一年价值500万美元的手表,如无意外也会随着其它物品一起展出,除非查理忍不住诱惑先买下了它。

Nicholas Kenner nailed me - again - at last year's meeting, pointing out that I had said in the 1990 annual report that he was 11 in May 1990, when actually he was 9. So, asked Nicholas rather caustically: "If you can't get that straight, how do I know the numbers in the back [the financials] are correct?" I'm still searching for a snappy response. Nicholas will be at this year's meeting - he spurned my offer of a trip to Disney World on that day - so join us to watch a continuation of this lop-sided battle of wits.

去年股东会Nicholas Kenner又杠上我了,他表示:「我在去年1990年报中表示他在1990年5月11号满十岁,但事实上他那时才刚满9岁」,他接着又用很嘲讽的语气说:「如果你连这个都搞不清楚,我如何还能相信你报告中的其他数字是正确的」到现在我还在想如何做出一个有力的回答,今年Nicholas还会出席,他拒绝了我邀请他当天到迪士尼乐园玩的建议,所以请大家继续好好观赏这一面倒的机智问答。

一九九二

Our per-share book value increased 20.3% during 1992. Over the last 28 years (that is, since present management took over) book value has grown from $19 to $7,745, or at a rate of 23.6% compounded annually.

1992年本公司的净值成长了20.3%,总计过去28年以来,也就是自从现有经营阶层接手之后,每股净值由当初的19元成长到现在的7,745美元,年复合成长率约为23.6%。

During the year, Berkshire's net worth increased by $1.52 billion. More than 98% of this gain came from earnings and appreciation of portfolio securities, with the remainder coming from the issuance of new stock. These shares were issued as a result of our calling our convertible debentures for redemption on January 4, 1993, and of some holders electing to receive common shares rather than the cash that was their alternative. Most holders of the debentures who converted into common waited until January to do it, but a few made the move in December and therefore received shares in 1992. To sum up what happened to the $476 million of bonds we had outstanding: $25 million were converted into shares before yearend; $46 million were converted in January; and $405 million were redeemed for cash. The conversions were made at $11,719 per share, so altogether we issued 6,106 shares.

回顾过去一年,Berkshire的净值增加了15.2亿美元,其中98%系来自于盈余与投资组合的增值,剩下的2%则是因为发行新股的缘故,这些股份是因为我们赎回在1993年1月4日所发行的可转换特别股,其中有部份持有人不要现金而选择领取本公司的普通股,大部分的持有人选择在1月进行转换,另外有一小部份则在去年12月就径行转换,总计当初我们发行总值4.76亿美元的债券中,4,600万在一月转换,另外4.05亿美元则以现金赎回,转换价订为11,719美元一股,换算下来一共发行了6,106股。

Berkshire now has 1,152,547 shares outstanding. That compares, you will be interested to know, to 1,137,778 shares outstanding on October 1, 1964, the beginning of the fiscal year during which Buffett Partnership, Ltd. acquired control of the company.

Berkshire目前流通在外股数为1,152,547股,相较于1964年10月1日当初,巴菲特合伙取得Berkshire控制权时的1,137,778股来说,增加的股数实属有限。

We have a firm policy about issuing shares of Berkshire, doing so only when we receive as much value as we give. Equal value, however, has not been easy to obtain, since we have always valued our shares highly. So be it: We wish to increase Berkshire's size only when doing that also increases the wealth of its owners.

对于发行新股我们有相当严格的规定,那就是除非我们确信所收到的价值与我们付出的一致时,我们才会考虑这样做,当然同等的价值不是那么容易达到,因为我们一向自视甚高,不过那又如何,除非确定公司股东的财富也会增加,否则我们不会随便扩大规模。

Those two objectives do not necessarily go hand-in-hand as an amusing but value-destroying experience in our past illustrates. On that occasion, we had a significant investment in a bank whose management was hell-bent on expansion. (Aren't they all?) When our bank wooed a smaller bank, its owner demanded a stock swap on a basis that valued the acquiree's net worth and earning power at over twice that of the acquirer's. Our management - visibly in heat - quickly capitulated. The owner of the acquiree then insisted on one other condition: "You must promise me," he said in effect, "that once our merger is done and I have become a major shareholder, you'll never again make a deal this dumb."

大家要知道这两个目的不一定就会自然吻合,事实上在我们过去所举过的例子中,有些就是看起来有趣但却是让价值受到减损的经验,在那次经验中,我们在一家银行有相当大的投资,而银行经理人对于扩张却有极度偏好,(他们不都是如此吗?),当我们投资的银行在追求另外一家较小的银行时,对方开出的价码是以其净值与获利能力作为基础后的两倍,当时我们的经理人因为正在热头上,所以很快就答应了,这时对方又得寸进尺开出另外一项条件,他说:「你必须答应我,在整个购并案完成后,我可以变成公司最大的股东,同时以后你也不能在做类似这次交易那样愚蠢的购并案」。

You will remember that our goal is to increase our per-share intrinsic value - for which our book value is a conservative, but useful, proxy - at a 15% annual rate. This objective, however, cannot be attained in a smooth manner. Smoothness is particularly elusive because of the accounting rules that apply to the common stocks owned by our insurance companies, whose portfolios represent a high proportion of Berkshire's net worth. Since 1979, generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) have required that these securities be valued at their market prices (less an adjustment for tax on any net unrealized appreciation) rather than at the lower of cost or market. Run-of-the-mill fluctuations in equity prices therefore cause our annual results to gyrate, especially in comparison to those of the typical industrial company.

大家一定要记得,我们的终极目标是希望能让公司每年以15%稳定的速度来增加每股的实质价值,当然公司的帐面价值虽然保守了点,但却是相当有用的替代性指针,不过这样的目标很难以平稳地态势达成,这在Berkshire尤其困难,因为会计原则规定,我们旗下保险事业所持有,占Berkshire相当大部分的股票投资必须以市价列示。自从1979年以来,一般公认会计原则就要求它们以市价方式而非原先的成本与市价孰低法列在公司帐上(当然要扣除未实现资本利得估计应支付的税负),股票价格如同水车滚轮般上上下下,也使得我们每年结算的成绩变化很大,尤其是在与一般公司产业比较时更为明显。

To illustrate just how volatile our progress has been - and to indicate the impact that market movements have on short-term results - we show on the facing page our annual change in per-share net worth and compare it with the annual results (including dividends) of the S&P 500.

为了解释我们净值变化的程度以及股票市场波动对于公司帐面盈余短期的影响,从今年起我们决定在年报的首页放置每年公司净值变化以及与S&P 500指数(含现金股利)之间的比较。

You should keep at least three points in mind as you evaluate this data. The first point concerns the many businesses we operate whose annual earnings are unaffected by changes in stock market valuations. The impact of these businesses on both our absolute and relative performance has changed over the years. Early on, returns from our textile operation, which then represented a significant portion of our net worth, were a major drag on performance, averaging far less than would have been the case if the money invested in that business had instead been invested in the S&P 500. In more recent years, as we assembled our collection of exceptional businesses run by equally exceptional managers, the returns from our operating businesses have been high - usually well in excess of the returns achieved by the S&P.

大家在评估这份资料时至少必须要注意三个重点,第一、我们旗下许多事业每年年度的获利并不受股市波动的影响,而这些企业对于我们绝对或相对的影响每年也都不一样,就早期而言,由于我们在纺织事业的报酬占我们净值相当大的部份,所以要是在这方面投资不当,我们的绩效可能会远远落后于将钱摆在S&P 500指数相关类股之上,不过到了最近,当我们逐渐利用投资组成一支由优秀经理人经营的优秀企业团队时,这些企业所带来的报酬通常远高于投资S&P 500指数。

A second important factor to consider - and one that significantly hurts our relative performance - is that both the income and capital gains from our securities are burdened by a substantial corporate tax liability whereas the S&P returns are pre-tax. To comprehend the damage, imagine that Berkshire had owned nothing other than the S&P index during the 28-year period covered. In that case, the tax bite would have caused our corporate performance to be appreciably below the record shown in the table for the S&P. Under present tax laws, a gain for the S&P of 18% delivers a corporate holder of that index a return well short of 13%. And this problem would be intensified if corporate tax rates were to rise. This is a structural disadvantage we simply have to live with; there is no antidote for it.

第二项应该要特别注意的因素-也是影响我们相对表现的因素,那就是我们投资证券所产生的收益与资本利得必须要负担相当重的税负,而在此同时S&P 500指数却是以免税基础计算的,为了让大家了解这期间的差异性,假设Berkshire在过去28年间就只投资S&P 500指数,则最后所得到的投资报酬将远低于S&P 500指数本身的表现,依照目前的税率,若是S&P 500上涨18%,则在课税后投资人真正得到的报酬只有13%不到,而这个问题若是考量目前税率即将调高的情况,将会变得更严重,这是一个我们必须要忍受的结构性问题,基本上没有办法可解。

The third point incorporates two predictions: Charlie Munger, Berkshire's Vice Chairman and my partner, and I are virtually certain that the return over the next decade from an investment in the S&P index will be far less than that of the past decade, and we are dead certain that the drag exerted by Berkshire's expanding capital base will substantially reduce our historical advantage relative to the index.

第三点包含两个预测,查理孟格-Berkshire的副主席兼主要合伙人,跟我都相当清楚,那就是未来十年内S&P 500指数的表现将无法像过去十年那样的好,而我们同样也相信以Berkshire目前资本规模越来越大的趋势,将会大大影响过去我们大幅超越指数的表现。

Making the first prediction goes somewhat against our grain: We've long felt that the only value of stock forecasters is to make fortune tellers look good. Even now, Charlie and I continue to believe that short-term market forecasts are poison and should be kept locked up in a safe place, away from children and also from grown-ups who behave in the market like children. However, it is clear that stocks cannot forever overperform their underlying businesses, as they have so dramatically done for some time, and that fact makes us quite confident of our forecast that the rewards from investing in stocks over the next decade will be significantly smaller than they were in the last. Our second conclusion - that an increased capital base will act as an anchor on our relative performance - seems incontestable. The only open question is whether we can drag the anchor along at some tolerable, though slowed, pace.

做出第一项预测有违我们的本性,一直以来我们认为股市预言家唯一的价值就是让算命先生看起来像那么一回事,即便是现在,查理跟我还是相信短期股市的预测是毒药,应该要把他们摆在最安全的地方,远离儿童以及那些在股市中的行为像小孩般幼稚的投资人,虽然有时股市的表现会有相当大的起伏,然而很明显的股市的表现不可能永远都能超越其背后所代表的企业,这也是为何我们胆敢预测未来十年投资人在股市所获得的报酬将很难再像过去十年那样的优异的原因。我们第二点结论,规模越来越大的资金将会拖累我们的绩效,对于这点倒是不容置疑,唯一的问题在于我们拖着这样的重担的同时,如何还能以缓慢但是可以忍受的速度前进。

We will continue to experience considerable volatility in our annual results. That's assured by the general volatility of the stock market, by the concentration of our equity holdings in just a few companies, and by certain business decisions we have made, most especially our move to commit large resources to super-catastrophe insurance. We not only accept this volatility but welcome it: A tolerance for short-term swings improves our long-term prospects. In baseball lingo, our performance yardstick is slugging percentage, not batting average.

往后我们将会继续经历年度绩效的上下变动,面对多变的股市,这点绝对可以确定,尤其是我们将资金集中在几家主要的被投资公司之上,同时也因为我们将大部分的资源摆在超级意外险之上的商业决策,我们不但接受这种变动,而且相当能够接受,只要忍受短期变动的同时可以为我们带来长期的效果,套句棒球常用的术语,我们的表现主要是看长打率而不是打击率。

The Salomon Interlude所罗门插曲

Last June, I stepped down as Interim Chairman of Salomon Inc after ten months in the job. You can tell from Berkshire's 1991-92 results that the company didn't miss me while I was gone. But the reverse isn't true: I missed Berkshire and am delighted to be back full-time. There is no job in the world that is more fun than running Berkshire and I count myself lucky to be where I am.

去年六月,在接手十个月后,我正式辞去所罗门董事会临时主席的职务,大家可以从1991年到1992年Berkshire的经营绩效看出,公司并没有因为我暂时不在而发生任何差错,不过反过来说就不一定了,我很怀念Berkshire且很愿意再度回到公司担任全职工作,对我而言,世界上没有任何其它工作比起经营Berkshire更有乐趣,很庆幸我自己能够身处现在这个位置。

The Salomon post, though far from fun, was interesting and worthwhile: In Fortune's annual survey of America's Most Admired Corporations, conducted last September, Salomon ranked second among 311 companies in the degree to which it improved its reputation. Additionally, Salomon Brothers, the securities subsidiary of Salomon Inc, reported record pre-tax earnings last year - 34% above the previous high.

这次所罗门的任务虽然不是很愉快,但却相当有趣且值得,在去年九月财富杂志票选全美最受崇敬企业的年度调查中,所罗门在全部的311家公司中名列第二进步奖,此外所罗门兄弟-所罗门集团其下的证券子公司,其税前盈余更是创下之前历史新高34%之多。

Many people helped in the resolution of Salomon's problems and the righting of the firm, but a few clearly deserve special mention. It is no exaggeration to say that without the combined efforts of Salomon executives Deryck Maughan, Bob Denham, Don Howard, and John Macfarlane, the firm very probably would not have survived. In their work, these men were tireless, effective, supportive and selfless, and I will forever be grateful to them.

所罗门能够得到解救需要感谢许多人,其中有几位尤其要特别提到的,若是没有Deryck Maughhan、Bob Denham、Don Howard与John Macfarlane等人的通力合作,这家证券商很可能无法幸免,这些人努力不懈、有效率、无私奉献的精神,让我永远感佩他们。

Salomon's lead lawyer in its Government matters, Ron Olson of Munger, Tolles & Olson, was also key to our success in getting through this trouble. The firm's problems were not only severe, but complex. At least five authorities - the SEC, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the U.S. Treasury, the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York, and the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice - had important concerns about Salomon. If we were to resolve our problems in a coordinated and prompt manner, we needed a lawyer with exceptional legal, business and human skills. Ron had them all.

所罗门在政府事务方面的首席律师-Munger, Tolles&Olson联合律师事务所的Ron Olson也是这次问题能够顺利解决的核心人物,所罗门所面临的问题不但严重而且相当复杂,至少有五个主管机关-证管会、纽约联邦准备银行、美国财政部、纽约南区地方法院与司法部的反托拉斯部门都牵涉其中,若是我们想要以明快有组织性地解决这件事,我们绝对必须要有一位具有商务法律专业与沟通技巧的律师来帮忙,Ron正是具备有这样条件的最佳人选。

Acquisitions购并案

Of all our activities at Berkshire, the most exhilarating for Charlie and me is the acquisition of a business with excellent economic characteristics and a management that we like, trust and admire. Such acquisitions are not easy to make but we look for them constantly. In the search, we adopt the same attitude one might find appropriate in looking for a spouse: It pays to be active, interested and open-minded, but it does not pay to be in a hurry.

在Berkshire所有的活动中,最令查理跟我感到雀跃的是当我们找到同时具有超强产业竞争力并且还拥有我们信任与崇敬的经营者的那种企业,想要买到这类公司可不是件容易的事,但我们会一直努力寻找,而在寻找的过程当中,我们采取的就像是与一般人寻找终身伴侣一样相同的态度,当然积极、乐观与开放的态度是应该的,但绝对没有必要躁进。

In the past, I've observed that many acquisition-hungry managers were apparently mesmerized by their childhood reading of the story about the frog-kissing princess. Remembering her success, they pay dearly for the right to kiss corporate toads, expecting wondrous transfigurations. Initially, disappointing results only deepen their desire to round up new toads. ("Fanaticism," said Santyana, "consists of redoubling your effort when you've forgotten your aim.") Ultimately, even the most optimistic manager must face reality. Standing knee-deep in unresponsive toads, he then announces an enormous "restructuring" charge. In this corporate equivalent of a Head Start program, the CEO receives the education but the stockholders pay the tuition.

过去我看过许多对于购并活动相当饥渴的经理人,很显然地可能是小时候青蛙王子的故事看太多了,脑中只记得那美丽的结局,他们很慷慨地花大笔的银子取得亲吻蟾蜍的机会,期望会有神奇的事情发生,而失望的结果往往只会让他们更积极地寻找下一次机会,(Santyana说:所谓的狂乐就是当你忘了目标何在时,还加倍投入你的心力),到最后即使是最乐观的经理人还是要被迫面对现实,深陷在一堆没有反应的蟾蜍当中,然后他会再大声地宣布将进行另一波的重整改造方案,在这种企业版的全新出击方案,CEO学到相当宝贵的教训,只不过学费却必须由股东们来出。

In my early days as a manager I, too, dated a few toads. They were cheap dates - I've never been much of a sport - but my results matched those of acquirers who courted higher-priced toads. I kissed and they croaked.

早年在我担任经理人时,也曾碰到几只蟾蜍,还好他们算是相当便宜的了,虽然我并没有那么积极,但所得到的结果与那些花高价追求蟾蜍的凯子经理人差不多,在亲了之后,它们还是依然聒聒叫。

After several failures of this type, I finally remembered some useful advice I once got from a golf pro (who, like all pros who have had anything to do with my game, wishes to remain anonymous). Said the pro: "Practice doesn't make perfect; practice makes permanent." And thereafter I revised my strategy and tried to buy good businesses at fair prices rather than fair businesses at good prices.

在失败过几次之后,我终于想起我曾经从某位职业高尔夫选手的建议(像所有职业选手一样,只要和我打过球的,通常都不太愿意我提起他们的名字),他说:「不断的练习虽然无法达到完美的境界,但练习却能够使你的成绩永续维持」,也因此我决定改变我的投资策略,试着以合理的价格买进好公司而不是以便宜的价格买进普通的公司。

Last year, in December, we made an acquisition that is a prototype of what we now look for. The purchase was 82% of Central States Indemnity, an insurer that makes monthly payments for credit-card holders who are unable themselves to pay because they have become disabled or unemployed. Currently the company's annual premiums are about $90 million and profits about $10 million. Central States is based in Omaha and managed by Bill Kizer, a friend of mine for over 35 years. The Kizer family - which includes sons Bill, Dick and John - retains 18% ownership of the business and will continue to run things just as it has in the past. We could not be associated with better people.

去年十二月,我们做了一个我们现在所认为最典型的购并案,那就是买下中央州险公司82%的股权,这是一家专门受理信用卡持有人因为突然失业或是失能而付不出信用卡帐单风险的保险公司,现在这家保险公司一年的保费收入大概是9,000万美元,获利1,000万美元,总部就设于奥玛哈,并且由与我结交35年以上的老朋友Bill Kizer所管理,Kizer家族包含他几个儿子持有剩下18%的股权,而且还会如同以前那般地经营这项事业,我们实在是不太可能再找到更合适的人选。

Coincidentally, this latest acquisition has much in common with our first, made 26 years ago. At that time, we purchased another Omaha insurer, National Indemnity Company (along with a small sister company) from Jack Ringwalt, another long-time friend. Jack had built the business from scratch and, as was the case with Bill Kizer, thought of me when he wished to sell. (Jack's comment at the time: "If I don't sell the company, my executor will, and I'd rather pick the home for it.") National Indemnity was an outstanding business when we bought it and continued to be under Jack's management. Hollywood has had good luck with sequels; I believe we, too, will.

碰巧的是这件最新的购并案与我在26年前第一次所做的案子有许多雷同之处,在当时,我们从另一位老朋友Jack Ringwalt手中,买下奥玛哈另一家保险公司-国家产险公司,这家公司是由Jack一手草创,同时也跟Bill一样,当他打算把公司卖掉时,第一个人就想到我,(Jack当时说到:若是我自己不卖这家公司,我的遗嘱执行人也会卖,所以我宁可自己为它找个归宿),国家产险在我们当初买下时,就是一家相当优秀的好公司,而在Jack的领导下依旧维持这样的情况,好莱坞在发行电影续集时,通常都会有不错的成绩,我想我也是。

Berkshire's acquisition criteria are described on page 23. Beyond purchases made by the parent company, however, our subsidiaries sometimes make small "add-on" acquisitions that extend their product lines or distribution capabilities. In this manner, we enlarge the domain of managers we already know to be outstanding - and that's a low-risk and high-return proposition. We made five acquisitions of this type in 1992, and one was not so small: At yearend, H. H. Brown purchased Lowell Shoe Company, a business with $90 million in sales that makes Nursemates, a leading line of shoes for nurses, and other kinds of shoes as well. Our operating managers will continue to look for add-on opportunities, and we would expect these to contribute modestly to Berkshire's value in the future.

Berkshire的购并标准详另页,除了母公司本身时常对外进行购并,我们旗下的子公司偶尔也会自行新添生力军,以延伸其产品线或是通路能力,就这点儿言,我们很愿意扩大旗下经理人的视野,因为我们相当清楚他们优异的能力,这绝对是低风险高报酬的一件事,在1992年我们总共有5件这样类似的案例,另外还有一件比较大的案子,在年底时,布朗鞋业买下Lowell鞋业-一家年营业额9,000万美金,专门制造护士专用鞋的公司,当然我们旗下事业的经理人还是继续寻找扩充的机会,而我们也预期他们未来将能够为Berkshire创造出更多的价值。

Then again, a trend has emerged that may make further acquisitions difficult. The parent company made one purchase in 1991, buying H. H. Brown, which is run by Frank Rooney, who has eight children. In 1992 our only deal was with Bill Kizer, father of nine. It won't be easy to keep this string going in 1993.

不过市场上目前的趋势再度地不利于购并活动的进行,母公司在1991年所买下的布朗鞋业,经营者Frank有八个小孩,我们在1992年唯一的案子的经理人, Bill有九个小孩,不过我想这种趋势很难在1993年继续维持下去。

Sources of Reported Earnings帐列盈余的来源

The table below shows the major sources of Berkshire's reported earnings. In this presentation, amortization of Goodwill and other major purchase-price accounting adjustments are not charged against the specific businesses to which they apply, but are instead aggregated and shown separately. This procedure lets you view the earnings of our businesses as they would have been reported had we not purchased them. I've explained in past reports why this form of presentation seems to us to be more useful to investors and managers than one utilizing GAAP, which requires purchase-price adjustments to be made on a business-by-business basis. The total net earnings we show in the table are, of course, identical to the GAAP total in our audited financial statements.

下表显示Berkshire帐列盈余的主要来源,在这张表中商誉的摊销数与购买法会计调整数会从个别被投资公司分离出来,单独加总列示,之所以这样做是为了让旗下各事业的盈余状况,不因我们的投资而有所影响,过去我一再地强调我们认为这样的表达方式,较之一般公认会计原则要求以个别企业基础做调整,不管是对投资者或是管理者来说,更有帮助,当然最后损益加总的数字仍然会与经会计师查核的数字一致。

(000s omitted) Berkshire's Share of Net Earnings (after taxes and Pre-Tax Earnings minority interests)

Operating Earnings: Insurance Group


 
 
Underwriting
 
Net Investment Income
 
H. H. Brown (acquired 7/1/91)
 
Buffalo News
 
Fechheimer
 
Kirby
 

1992
 
$(108,961)
 
355,067
 
27,883
 
47,863
 
13,698
 
35,653
 

1991
 
$(119,593)
 
331,846
 
13,616
 
37,113
 
12,947
 
35,726
 

1992
 
$ (71,141)
 
305,763
 
17,340
 
28,163
 
7,267
 
22,795
 

1991
 
$ (77,229)
 
285,173
 
8,611
 
21,841
 
6,843
 
22,555
 

 


 
 
Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group
 
See's Candies
 
Wesco - other than Insurance
 
World Book
 
Amortization of Goodwill
 

1992
 
17,110
 
31,954
 
42,357
 
15,153
 
29,044
 
(4,702)
 

1991
 
14,384
 
26,123
 
42,390
 
12,230
 
22,483
 
(4,113)
 

1992
 
8,072
 
19,883
 
25,501
 
9,195
 
19,503
 
(4,687)
 

1991
 
6,993
 
15,901
 
25,575
 
8,777
 
15,487
 
(4,098)
 

 


 
 
Other Purchase-Price
 
Shareholder-Designated
 

 
 
Accounting Charges
 
Interest Expense*
 
Contributions
 
Other
 

1992
 
(7,385)
 
(98,643)
 
(7,634)
 
72,223
 

1991
 
(6,021)
 
(89,250)
 
(6,772)
 
77,399
 

1992
 
(8,383)
 
(62,899)
 
(4,913)
 
36,267
 

1991
 
(7,019)
 
(57,165)
 
(4,388)
 
47,896
 

 


 
 
Operating Earnings
 
Sales of Securities
 
Total Earnings - All Entities
 

1992
 
460,680
 
89,937
 
$ 550,617
 

1991
 
400,508
 
192,478
 
$ 592,986
 

1992
 
347,726
 
59,559
 
$ 407,285
 

1991
 
315,753
 
124,155
 
$ 439,908
 

*Excludes interest expense of Scott Fetzer Financial Group and Mutual Savings & Loan. Includes $22.5 million in 1992 and $5.7 million in 1991 of premiums paid on the early redemption of debt.

*不包含史考特飞兹与联合储贷的利息费用,另外加计1992年与1991年分别赎回可转换债券所额外支付的2,250万与570万溢价。

A large amount of additional information about these businesses is given on pages 37-47, where you will also find our segment earnings reported on a GAAP basis. Our goal is to give you all of the financial information that Charlie and I consider significant in making our own evaluation of Berkshire.

在年报中你可以找到依照一般公认会计原则编制,详细的部门别信息,至于我们的目的是希望给你所有查理跟我认为在评估Berkshire价值时,应该必要的资讯。

"Look-Through" Earnings透视盈余

We've previously discussed look-through earnings, which consist of: (1) the operating earnings reported in the previous section, plus; (2) the retained operating earnings of major investees that, under GAAP accounting, are not reflected in our profits, less; (3) an allowance for the tax that would be paid by Berkshire if these retained earnings of investees had instead been distributed to us. Though no single figure can be perfect, we believe that the look-through number more accurately portrays the earnings of Berkshire than does the GAAP number.

之前我们曾经讨论过透视盈余,其主要的组成份子有(1)前段所提到的帐列盈余,加上(2)主要被投资公司的保留盈余,按一般公认会计原则未反应在我们公司帐上的盈余,扣除(3)若这些未反应的盈余分配给我们时,估计可能要缴的所得税。虽然没有任何一项数字是完美的,但我们相信这项透视盈余会比按一般公认会计原则下的数字更能够反应Berkshire实际的获利状况。

I've told you that over time look-through earnings must increase at about 15% annually if our intrinsic business value is to grow at that rate. Our look-through earnings in 1992 were $604 million, and they will need to grow to more than $1.8 billion by the year 2000 if we are to meet that 15% goal. For us to get there, our operating subsidiaries and investees must deliver excellent performances, and we must exercise some skill in capital allocation as well.

我曾经告诉各位,长期而言,如果我们的实质价值也期望以这个幅度来成长的话,透视盈余每年也必须增加15%,1992年我们的透视盈余约为6.04亿美元,而到公元2000年为止,若要以15%的目标,透视盈余必须成长到18亿美元,要完成这样的目标,代表我们旗下的营运事业及主要的被投资公司必须要有更杰出的表现,同时我们本身资金规划分配也要更有效益才成。

We cannot promise to achieve the $1.8 billion target. Indeed, we may not even come close to it. But it does guide our decision-making: When we allocate capital today, we are thinking about what will maximize look-through earnings in 2000.

我们不敢保证届时一定可以达到18亿美元的目标,甚至很有可能根本就达不到,不过这目标还是对我们的决策有帮助,每当我们现在在分配资金时,我们都会想到要如何将2000年的透视盈余极大化。

We do not, however, see this long-term focus as eliminating the need for us to achieve decent short-term results as well. After all, we were thinking long-range thoughts five or ten years ago, and the moves we made then should now be paying off. If plantings made confidently are repeatedly followed by disappointing harvests, something is wrong with the farmer. (Or perhaps with the farm: Investors should understand that for certain companies, and even for some industries, there simply is no good long-term strategy.) Just as you should be suspicious of managers who pump up short-term earnings by accounting maneuvers, asset sales and the like, so also should you be suspicious of those managers who fail to deliver for extended periods and blame it on their long-term focus. (Even Alice, after listening to the Queen lecture her about "jam tomorrow," finally insisted, "It must come sometimes to jam today.")

不过我们对于长期目标的专注并不代表我们就不注重短期结果,总的来说我们早在5到10年前就预先规划设想,而当时所作的举动现在才开始慢慢地回收,如果每次有信心的播种最后的收割结果都一再让人失望的话,农夫就应该要好好地检讨原因了,(不然就是农地有问题,投资人必须了解对于某些公司或甚至是某些产业,根本就没有所谓的长期性策略),就像是你可能会特别留心那些利用会计手法或出售资产撑高短期盈余的经理人,你也应该要特别注意那些一再延长达成目标期程,并把长期目标一直挂在嘴上的人,(即使是爱莉丝一再听到母后明天再挤牛奶的说教,她最后还是忍不注坚持,总有一些应该要今天挤吧!)

The following table shows you how we calculate look-through earnings, though I warn you that the figures are necessarily very rough. (The dividends paid to us by these investees have been included in the operating earnings itemized on page 8, mostly under "Insurance Group: Net Investment Income.")

各位可以从下表看出我们是如何计算透视盈余的,不过我还是要提醒各位这些数字有点粗糙,(被投资公司所分配的股利收入已经包含在保险事业的净投资收益项下)

Berkshire's Share of Undistributed

Berkshire's Approximate Operating Earnings

Berkshire's Major Investees Ownership at Yearend (in millions)


 
 
Capital Cities/ABC Inc.
 
The Coca-Cola Company
 
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp.
 
GEICO Corp
 
General Dynamics Corp.
 
The Gillette Company
 
Guinness PLC
 
The Washington Post Company
 
Wells Fargo & Company
 

1992
 
18.2%
 
7.1%
 
8.2%(1)
 
48.1%
 
14.1%
 
10.9%
 
2.0%
 
14.6%
 
11.5%
 

1991
 
18.1%
 
7.0%
 
3.4%(1)
 
48.2%
 
--
 
11.0%
 
1.6%
 
14.6%
 
9.6%
 

1992
 
$ 70
 
82
 
29(2)
 
34(3)
 
11(2)
 
38
 
7
 
11
 
16(2)
 

1991
 
$ 61
 
69
 
15
 
69(3)
 
--
 
23(2)
 
--
 
10
 
(17)(2)
 

 


 
 
Berkshire's share of undistributed earnings of major investees
 
Hypothetical tax on these undistributed investee earnings
 
Reported operating earnings of Berkshire
 
Total look-through earnings of Berkshire
 

1992
 
$298
 
(42)
 
348
 
$604
 

1991
 
$230
 
(30)
 
316
 
$516
 

(1) Net of minority interest at Wesco已扣除Wesco的少数股权

(2) Calculated on average ownership for the year以年平均持有股权比例计算

(3) Excludes realized capital gains, which have been both recurring and significant扣除重复发生且金额大的已实现资本利得,

Insurance Operations保险事业营运

Shown below is an updated version of our usual table presenting key figures for the property-casualty insurance industry:

下表是产物意外险业的最新的几项重要指数

Yearly Change Combined Ratio in Premiums After Policyholder    Written (%) Dividends


1981
 
1982
 
1983
 
1984
 
1985
 
1986
 
1987
 
1988
 
1989
 
1990
 
1991 (Revised)
 
1992 (Est.)
 

3.8
 
3.7
 
5.0
 
8.5
 
22.1
 
22.2
 
9.4
 
4.5
 
3.2
 
4.5
 
2.4
 
2.7
 

106.0
 
109.6
 
112.0
 
118.0
 
116.3
 
108.0
 
104.6
 
105.4
 
109.2
 
109.6
 
108.8
 
114.8
 

The combined ratio represents total insurance costs (losses incurred plus expenses) compared to revenue from premiums: A ratio below 100 indicates an underwriting profit, and one above 100 indicates a loss. The higher the ratio, the worse the year. When the investment income that an insurer earns from holding policyholders' funds ("the float") is taken into account, a combined ratio in the 106 - 110 range typically produces an overall break-even result, exclusive of earnings on the funds provided by shareholders.

综合比率代表保险的总成本(理赔损失加上费用)占保费收入的比例,比率在100以下代表有承保的损失,在100以上则代表有承保的获利综合比率代表的是保险的总成本(损失加上费用)占保费收入的比率,100以下代表会有承销利益,100以上代表会有承销损失,若把持有保费收入浮存金(扣除股东权益部份所产生的盈余)所产生的投资收益列入考量,损益两平的范围大概是在106-110之间。

About four points in the industry's 1992 combined ratio can be attributed to Hurricane Andrew, which caused the largest insured loss in history. Andrew destroyed a few small insurers. Beyond that, it awakened some larger companies to the fact that their reinsurance protection against catastrophes was far from adequate. (It's only when the tide goes out that you learn who's been swimming naked.) One major insurer escaped insolvency solely because it had a wealthy parent that could promptly supply a massive transfusion of capital.

1992年的综合比率由于史上最大的单一损失理赔事件-Andrew 飓风发生而多增加了4个百分点,Andrew让几家小型保险公司因此倒闭,另外他也让许多大型保险公司发觉自己并未寻求到足够的再保险保护,(只有当浪退了,大家才知道是谁没穿衣服还在游泳的),还有一家大型的保险公司要不是因为背后有个有钱的母公司及时供应资金的话,可能早就已经关门大吉了。

Bad as it was, however, Andrew could easily have been far more damaging if it had hit Florida 20 or 30 miles north of where it actually did and had hit Louisiana further east than was the case. All in all, many companies will rethink their reinsurance programs in light of the Andrew experience.

坏归坏,还好Andrew没有往北20-30英哩侵袭到佛罗里达,或是往东侵袭到路易西安那州,否则损失可能难以估计,总而言之,很多公司因为Andrew事件可能会重新考虑现有的再保险安排是否适当。

As you know we are a large writer - perhaps the largest in the world - of "super-cat" coverages, which are the policies that other insurance companies buy to protect themselves against major catastrophic losses. Consequently, we too took our lumps from Andrew, suffering losses from it of about $125 million, an amount roughly equal to our 1992 super-cat premium income. Our other super-cat losses, though, were negligible. This line of business therefore produced an overall loss of only $2 million for the year. (In addition, our investee, GEICO, suffered a net loss from Andrew, after reinsurance recoveries and tax savings, of about $50 million, of which our share is roughly $25 million. This loss did not affect our operating earnings, but did reduce our look-through earnings.)

大家知道Berkshire一直都是霹雳猫保单相当大的发行公司,或许规模已是全世界最大的,这类保单通常是由其它保险公司买来分散他们本身在重大意外事故所需承担的风险,也因此我们必须承受一大块Andrew所造成的损失,金额约为1.25亿美元,这数字相当于我们一整年的保费收入,不过还好其它霹雳猫保单实际发生的损失都相当轻微,所以结算下来全年的总损失只有200万美元,(另外我们的被投资公司GEICO也因Andrew飓风产生了一些损失,在扣除再保分摊与税负抵减之后,金额约为5,000万美元,依我们的持股比例大概要分摊2,500万美元,虽然这项损失不会反应在我们的帐上,但确实已对我们的透视盈余造成影响)。

In last year's report I told you that I hoped that our super-cat business would over time achieve a 10% profit margin. But I also warned you that in any given year the line was likely to be "either enormously profitable or enormously unprofitable." Instead, both 1991 and 1992 have come in close to a break-even level. Nonetheless, I see these results as aberrations and stick with my prediction of huge annual swings in profitability from this business.

在去年的年报中,我曾告诉各位我们希望能从霹雳猫保险这类业务获得10%的利润空间,但我还是要提醒各位在某些特定的年度中,有可能一下子大赚或是一下子大亏,然而1991年与1992年倒是维持在损益两平的边缘,不过我还是认为这样的结果有点异常,同时我还是坚持在这行获利可能大好大坏的预测。

Let me remind you of some characteristics of our super-cat policies. Generally, they are activated only when two things happen. First, the direct insurer or reinsurer we protect must suffer losses of a given amount - that's the policyholder's "retention" - from a catastrophe; and second, industry-wide insured losses from the catastrophe must exceed some minimum level, which usually is $3 billion or more. In most cases, the policies we issue cover only a specific geographical area, such as a portion of the U.S., the entire U.S., or everywhere other than the U.S. Also, many policies are not activated by the first super-cat that meets the policy terms, but instead cover only a "second-event" or even a third- or fourth-event. Finally, some policies are triggered only by a catastrophe of a specific type, such as an earthquake. Our exposures are large: We have one policy that calls for us to pay $100 million to the policyholder if a specified catastrophe occurs. (Now you know why I suffer eyestrain: from watching The Weather Channel.)

我还是苦口婆心再提醒各位霹雳猫保单的特点,通常只有在两种情况发生时,理赔才会生效,首先受我们保护的保险或再保公司的损失必须超过一定金额-也就是保户的自留保额部份;第二整个保险业界的损失也必须超过一定的上限,比如说30亿美元以上或甚至更多。在大部分的状况之下,我们发行的保单只包含特定地区,像是美国一部份州、或是全美国或是除了美国的以外地区,另外有许多保单也不是在第一次大型灾害发生后就须理赔,有的只保第二次或第三次甚至是第四次大灾害,最后一点有些保单只保特定种类的灾害,比如说是地震,我们暴露的风险相当的大,我们有一张保单若是发生保单上指定的特定灾害发生的话,就必须给予保户1亿美元的理赔,(现在你应该知道我常常盯着气象频道盯到眼睛酸的原因了吧)。

Currently, Berkshire is second in the U.S. property-casualty industry in net worth (the leader being State Farm, which neither buys nor sells reinsurance). Therefore, we have the capacity to assume risk on a scale that interests virtually no other company. We have the appetite as well: As Berkshire's net worth and earnings grow, our willingness to write business increases also. But let me add that means good business. The saying, "a fool and his money are soon invited everywhere," applies in spades in reinsurance, and we actually reject more than 98% of the business we are offered. Our ability to choose between good and bad proposals reflects a management strength that matches our financial strength: Ajit Jain, who runs our reinsurance operation, is simply the best in this business. In combination, these strengths guarantee that we will stay a major factor in the super-cat business so long as prices are appropriate.

现在Berkshire是全美国净值第二大的产业意外险公司(排名第一的是州农保险,不过他们并不从事再保业务),因此我们绝对有能力也有兴趣去承担别的保险公司无法承担的风险,随着Berkshire的净值与获利能力继续成长,我们接受保单的意愿也跟着增加,但是我必须强调只有好的生意我们才愿意接,有人说:笨的有钱人特别好骗,我想这句话也适用在再保险之上,事实上我们平均我们拒绝98%以上上门的保单请求,我们挑选客户的能力跟我们本身的财务实力相当, Ajit Jain负责经营我们的再保业务,堪称业界的翘楚,两者结合使得我们的竞争力确保我们可以在霹雳猫保险业界继续成为主要的参与者,只要保费价格合理的话。

What constitutes an appropriate price, of course, is difficult to determine. Catastrophe insurers can't simply extrapolate past experience. If there is truly "global warming," for example, the odds would shift, since tiny changes in atmospheric conditions can produce momentous changes in weather patterns. Furthermore, in recent years there has been a mushrooming of population and insured values in U.S. coastal areas that are particularly vulnerable to hurricanes, the number one creator of super-cats. A hurricane that caused x dollars of damage 20 years ago could easily cost 10x now.

当然何谓合理的价格实在是很难去界定,灾害保险业者实在是很难依据过去的经验来预估未来,例如若是全球温室效应确实存在的话,意外变量一定会增多,只要大气状况有任何些微的转变就有可能造成气象形态的巨幅波动,更有甚者,最近几年美国海岸地区人口爆炸性成长,使得这些地区的被保标的特别容易受到飓风的侵袭,而飓风正是超级意外最常发生的第一名,现在一次飓风所发生的损失可能是二十年前的十倍以上。

Occasionally, also, the unthinkable happens. Who would have guessed, for example, that a major earthquake could occur in Charleston, S.C.? (It struck in 1886, registered an estimated 6.6 on the Richter scale, and caused 60 deaths.) And who could have imagined that our country's most serious quake would occur at New Madrid, Missouri, which suffered an estimated 8.7 shocker in 1812. By comparison, the 1989 San Francisco quake was a 7.1 - and remember that each one-point Richter increase represents a ten-fold increase in strength. Someday, a U.S. earthquake occurring far from California will cause enormous losses for insurers.

而且有时还会有意想不到的事情发生,比如说谁会想到Charleston地区竟然会发生大地震(它在1886年发生,芮氏规模6.6,造成60个人死亡),又有谁知道美国史上最严重的地震是1812年发生在密苏里州估计规模8.7的那次地震,比较起来1989年发生在旧金山的大地震,规模只有7.1,大家要知道每增加0.1级代表其释放的力量就要增加10倍,哪一天要是加州发生大地震的话,将会对所有保险业者造成难以估计的损失。

When viewing our quarterly figures, you should understand that our accounting for super-cat premiums differs from our accounting for other insurance premiums. Rather than recording our super-cat premiums on a pro-rata basis over the life of a given policy, we defer recognition of revenue until a loss occurs or until the policy expires. We take this conservative approach because the likelihood of super-cats causing us losses is particularly great toward the end of the year. It is then that weather tends to kick up: Of the ten largest insured losses in U.S. history, nine occurred in the last half of the year. In addition, policies that are not triggered by a first event are unlikely, by their very terms, to cause us losses until late in the year.

当各位在检视我们每季的数字时,大家一定要知道我们霹雳猫保险的会计原则与一般保险有些许的不同,没有将霹雳猫的保费收入按保单发行期间平均分摊认列,我们必须等到整个保单期间结束或是损失发生后才全部一次认列,我们之所以采取这样保守的做法,原因在于霹雳猫保单在年度截止之前特别容易发生意情,尤其是天气状况更是如此,在历史上前十大意外灾害中,有九件是发生在下半年,此外由于许多保单在第一次重大灾害发生时,并不理赔,所以若真的发生损失的话,通常会是在下半年。

The bottom-line effect of our accounting procedure for super-cats is this: Large losses may be reported in any quarter of the year, but significant profits will only be reported in the fourth quarter.

对于霹雳猫保险我们的会计原则底限就是,钜额的损失可能会发生在任何一季,但钜额的获利只有在每年的第四季才有可能出现。

As I've told you in each of the last few years, what counts in our insurance business is "the cost of funds developed from insurance," or in the vernacular, "the cost of float." Float - which we generate in exceptional amounts - is the total of loss reserves, loss adjustment expense reserves and unearned premium reserves minus agents' balances, prepaid acquisition costs and deferred charges applicable to assumed reinsurance. The cost of float is measured by our underwriting loss.

就像是前几年向各位提过的,真正重要的是我们从保险业所取得的资金,其资金成本到底是多少,套句专业术语,就是浮存金成本,浮存金-系指我们靠保险业所取得大量的资金,系指将所有的损失准备、损失费用调整准备与未赚取保费加总后,再扣除应付佣金、预付购并成本及相关再保递延费用,至于浮存金的成本则是以我们所发生的承保损失来衡量。

The table below shows our cost of float since we entered the business in 1967.

下表是我们在1967年进入保险业后,浮存金的成本统计:

(1) (2) Yearend Yield

Underwriting Approximate on Long-Term   Loss Average Float Cost of Funds Govt. Bonds  (In $ Millions) (Ratio of 1 to 2)


1967
 
profit $17.3 less than zero 5.50%
 
1980
 
profit 237.0 less than zero 11.94%
 

1968
 
profit 19.9 less than zero 5.90%
 
1981
 
profit 228.4 less than zero 13.61%
 

1969
 
profit 23.4 less than zero 6.79%
 
1982
 
21.56 220.6 9.77% 10.64%
 

1970
 
$ 0.37 32.4 1.14% 6.25%
 
1983
 
33.87 231.3 14.64% 11.84%
 

1971
 
profit 52.5 less than zero 5.81%
 
1984
 
48.06 253.2 18.98% 11.58%
 

1972
 
profit 69.5 less than zero 5.82%
 
1985
 
44.23 390.2 11.34% 9.34%
 

1973
 
profit 73.3 less than zero 7.27%
 
1986
 
55.84 797.5 7.00% 7.60%
 

1974
 
7.36 79.1 9.30% 8.13%
 
1987
 
55.43 1,266.7 4.38% 8.95%
 

1975
 
11.35 87.6 12.96% 8.03%
 
1988
 
11.08 1,497.7 0.74% 9.00%
 

1976
 
profit 102.6 less than zero 7.30%
 
1989
 
24.40 1,541.3 1.58% 7.97%
 

1977
 
profit 139.0 less than zero 7.97%
 
1990
 
26.65 1,637.3 1.63% 8.24%
 

1978
 
profit 190.4 less than zero 8.93%
 
1991
 
119.59 1,895.0 6.31% 7.40%
 

1979
 
profit 227.3 less than zero 10.08%
 
1992
 
108.96 2,290.4 4.76% 7.39%
 

Last year, our insurance operation again generated funds at a cost below that incurred by the U.S. Government on its newly-issued long-term bonds. This means that in 21 years out of the 26 years we have been in the insurance business we have beaten the Government's rate, and often we have done so by a wide margin. (If, on average, we didn't beat the Government's rate, there would be no economic reason for us to be in the business.)

去年我们保险营运所产生的资金成本还是一样低于美国政府当年所新发行的公债利率,意思是说在过去26年的保险事业经营中,我们有21年是远胜于政府公债发行利率,而且差距的幅度通常都相当可观,(那天要是我们平均的资金成本高于政府公债的利率的话,我们实在就没有理由继续留在保险业了)。

In 1992, as in previous years, National Indemnity's commercial auto and general liability business, led by Don Wurster, and our homestate operation, led by Rod Eldred, made excellent contributions to our low cost of float. Indeed, both of these operations recorded an underwriting profit last year, thereby generating float at a less-than-zero cost. The bulk of our float, meanwhile, comes from large transactions developed by Ajit. His efforts are likely to produce a further growth in float during 1993.

1992年,如同以往年度,由Don Wurster领导的国家产物意外险公司所经营的汽车与一般责任保险以及Rod Eldred领导的Homestate营运,对于我们取得低廉的资金有相当的贡献,事实上,在去年这两家公司都有承保获利,也就是说所产生的保险浮存金的资金成本都是低于零,当然我们也有一大笔的浮存金是来自于Ajit所开发出来的大型案件,展望1993年这方面所贡献的保费收入还会增加。

Charlie and I continue to like the insurance business, which we expect to be our main source of earnings for decades to come. The industry is huge; in certain sectors we can compete world-wide; and Berkshire possesses an important competitive advantage. We will look for ways to expand our participation in the business, either indirectly as we have done through GEICO or directly as we did by acquiring Central States Indemnity.

查理跟我还是相当喜爱保险业,这也是我们预期未来十年盈余的主要来源,这个产业规模够大,在某些类别我们可以与全世界业者竞争,同时Berkshire在这方面也拥有特殊的竞争力,我们会继续寻找在这行增加参与的机会,不管是间接透过GEICO、或是以取得中央州立保险公司的股权那样直接参与。

Common Stock Investments股票投资

Below we list our common stock holdings having a value of over $100 million. A small portion of these investments belongs to subsidiaries of which Berkshire owns less than 100%.

下表是我们超过一亿美元以上的普通股投资,一部份的投资系属于Berkshire关系企业所持有)。

12/31/92 Shares Company Cost Market (000s omitted)


3,000,000
 
93,400,000
 
16,196,700
 
34,250,000
 
4,350,000
 
24,000,000
 
38,335,000
 
1,727,765
 
6,358,418
 

Capital Cities/ABC, Inc.
 
The Coca-Cola Company
 
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp. ("Freddie Mac")
 
GEICO Corp
 
General Dynamics Corp
 
The Gillette Company
 
Guinness PLC
 
The Washington Post Company
 
Wells Fargo & Company
 

$ 517,500
 
1,023,920
 
414,257
 
45,713
 
312,438
 
600,000
 
333,019
 
9,731
 
380,983
 

$1,523,500
 
3,911,125
 
783,515
 
2,226,250
 
450,769
 
1,365,000
 
299,581
 
396,954
 
485,624
 

Leaving aside splits, the number of shares we held in these companies changed during 1992 in only four cases: We added moderately to our holdings in Guinness and Wells Fargo, we more than doubled our position in Freddie Mac, and we established a new holding in General Dynamics. We like to buy.

除了股票分割,我们1992年在这些主要投资的持股只有四项变动,我们小幅增加Guinness与Wells Fargo的持股,另外将Freddie Mac的持股增加一倍,至于通用动力则是全新增加的投资。

Selling, however, is a different story. There, our pace of activity resembles that forced upon a traveler who found himself stuck in tiny Podunk's only hotel. With no T.V. in his room, he faced an evening of boredom. But his spirits soared when he spied a book on the night table entitled "Things to do in Podunk." Opening it, he found just a single sentence: "You're doing it."

我们很喜欢买股票,不过卖股票又是另外一回事,就这点我们的步伐就像是一个旅行家发现自己身处于只有一个小旅馆的小镇上,房间里没有电视,面对慢慢无聊的长夜,突然间他很兴奋地发现桌上有一本书名为「在本小镇可以做的事」,只是当他翻开书后,里面却只有短短的一句话:「那就是你现在在做的这件事」。

We were lucky in our General Dynamics purchase. I had paid little attention to the company until last summer, when it announced it would repurchase about 30% of its shares by way of a Dutch tender. Seeing an arbitrage opportunity, I began buying the stock for Berkshire, expecting to tender our holdings for a small profit. We've made the same sort of commitment perhaps a half-dozen times in the last few years, reaping decent rates of return for the short periods our money has been tied up.

我们很高兴能买到通用动力,之前我并未特别留意这家公司,直到去年夏天该公司宣布买回流通在外30%的股权,看到这样难得的套利机会,我开始替Berkshire买进这家公司的股票,预期透过公司买回股份可以小赚一笔,在过去几年中,我们曾经做了好几次类似这样的交易,让短期投入的资金获得相当丰厚的报酬。

But then I began studying the company and the accomplishments of Bill Anders in the brief time he'd been CEO. And what I saw made my eyes pop: Bill had a clearly articulated and rational strategy; he had been focused and imbued with a sense of urgency in carrying it out; and the results were truly remarkable.

之后我开始研究这家公司,以及Bill Anders在担任该公司CEO短短期间所做的事,没想到让我眼睛一亮,Bill有一套精心设计的策略,他相当专注于把这项策略付诸实行,而最后所得到的成果也相当不错。

In short order, I dumped my arbitrage thoughts and decided that Berkshire should become a long-term investor with Bill. We were helped in gaining a large position by the fact that a tender greatly swells the volume of trading in a stock. In a one-month period, we were able to purchase 14% of the General Dynamics shares that remained outstanding after the tender was completed.

过不了多久,我就把短期套利的念头拋开,决定Berkshire应该成为Bill的长期投资者,而受惠于买回股份的消息,成交量扩大,我们得以买进大量的部位,在短短一个月期间,我们一口气买进通用动力14%的股份,这是在扣除该公司本身买回的股份之后的比例。

Our equity-investing strategy remains little changed from what it was fifteen years ago, when we said in the 1977 annual report: "We select our marketable equity securities in much the way we would evaluate a business for acquisition in its entirety. We want the business to be one (a) that we can understand; (b) with favorable long-term prospects; (c) operated by honest and competent people; and (d) available at a very attractive price." We have seen cause to make only one change in this creed: Because of both market conditions and our size, we now substitute "an attractive price" for "a very attractive price."

我们在股权投资的策略跟15年前1977年度报告的那套一样,并没有多大的变化,在选择股票投资所采用的评估方式与买下一整家企业的情况没什么两样,我们希望投资的对象(1)是我们所了解的(2)具有长期的远景(3)由才德兼具的人所经营(4)非常吸引人的合理价格。但考量目前市场的情况与公司的资金规模,我们现在决定将"非常吸引人的价格"改成"吸引人的价格"。

But how, you will ask, does one decide what's "attractive"? In answering this question, most analysts feel they must choose between two approaches customarily thought to be in opposition: "value" and "growth." Indeed, many investment professionals see any mixing of the two terms as a form of intellectual cross-dressing.

或许你又会问,那么到底应该如何决定价格够不够吸引人呢? 在回答这个问题时,大部分的分析师通常都会选择两种看起来对立的方法,"价值法"与"成长法",事实上有许多投资专家会将这两种方法交替运用,就像是轮流换穿衣物一样。

We view that as fuzzy thinking (in which, it must be confessed, I myself engaged some years ago). In our opinion, the two approaches are joined at the hip: Growth is always a component in the calculation of value, constituting a variable whose importance can range from negligible to enormous and whose impact can be negative as well as positive.

我们觉得这种观念似是而非(为此我个人必须承认,好几年前我也是采用这种方法),基本上我们认为这两种方法本为一体,在计算一家公司的价值时,成长当然是一件很重要的因素,这个变量将会使得所计算出来的价值从很小到极大,所造成的影响有可能是正面的,也有可能是负面的。

In addition, we think the very term "value investing" is redundant. What is "investing" if it is not the act of seeking value at least sufficient to justify the amount paid? Consciously paying more for a stock than its calculated value - in the hope that it can soon be sold for a still-higher price - should be labeled speculation (which is neither illegal, immoral nor - in our view - financially fattening).

此外,我们也认为所谓的「价值投资」根本就是废话,若是所投入的资金不是为了换取追求相对应的价值的话,那还算是投资吗? 明明知道所付出的成本已经高出其所应有的价值,而只是寄望在短期之内可以用更高的价格卖出根本就是投机的行为,(当然这种行为一点都不会违法,也不违反道德,只是就我们的观点来说,只是在玩吹气球游戏而已)。

Whether appropriate or not, the term "value investing" is widely used. Typically, it connotes the purchase of stocks having attributes such as a low ratio of price to book value, a low price-earnings ratio, or a high dividend yield. Unfortunately, such characteristics, even if they appear in combination, are far from determinative as to whether an investor is indeed buying something for what it is worth and is therefore truly operating on the principle of obtaining value in his investments. Correspondingly, opposite characteristics - a high ratio of price to book value, a high price-earnings ratio, and a low dividend yield - are in no way inconsistent with a "value" purchase.

不管适不适当,「价值投资」这个名词常常被人引用,一般而言,它代表投资人以较低的股价/净值比或是本益比或是高的股利收益率买进投资标的,很不幸的是,就算是具备以上所有的特点,投资人还是很难确保所买到的投资标的确有此价值,从而确信他的投资是依照取得企业价值的原意在进行;相对地,以较高的股价/净值比或是本益比或是低的股利收益率买进投资标的,也不一定就代表不是一项有「价值」的投资。

Similarly, business growth, per se, tells us little about value. It's true that growth often has a positive impact on value, sometimes one of spectacular proportions. But such an effect is far from certain. For example, investors have regularly poured money into the domestic airline business to finance profitless (or worse) growth. For these investors, it would have been far better if Orville had failed to get off the ground at Kitty Hawk: The more the industry has grown, the worse the disaster for owners.

同样的企业成长本身而言,也很难保证就一定代表价值,当然成长通常会对价值有正面的影响,有时是相当重要的一项前提,但这种影响却不是绝对,例如投资人以往将大笔的资金投入到国内的航空业来支持获利无望(或是悲惨)的成长,对于这些投资人来说,应该会希望莱特兄弟当初没有驾着小鹰号成功起飞,航空产业越发达,这些投资人就越悲惨。

Growth benefits investors only when the business in point can invest at incremental returns that are enticing - in other words, only when each dollar used to finance the growth creates over a dollar of long-term market value. In the case of a low-return business requiring incremental funds, growth hurts the investor.

成长只有当企业将资金投入到可以增加更多报酬的活动上,投资人才有可能受惠,换句话说,只有当每投入的一块钱可以在未来创造超过一块钱的价值时,成长才有意义,至于那些需要资金但却只能创造出低报酬的公司,成长对于投资人来说反而是有害的。

In The Theory of Investment Value, written over 50 years ago, John Burr Williams set forth the equation for value, which we condense here: The value of any stock, bond or business today is determined by the cash inflows and outflows - discounted at an appropriate interest rate - that can be expected to occur during the remaining life of the asset. Note that the formula is the same for stocks as for bonds. Even so, there is an important, and difficult to deal with, difference between the two: A bond has a coupon and maturity date that define future cash flows; but in the case of equities, the investment analyst must himself estimate the future "coupons." Furthermore, the quality of management affects the bond coupon only rarely - chiefly when management is so inept or dishonest that payment of interest is suspended. In contrast, the ability of management can dramatically affect the equity "coupons."

在John Burr Williams 50年前所写的投资价值理论当中,老早便已提出计算价值的公式,。我把它浓缩列示如下:今天任何股票、债券或是企业的价值,都将取决于其未来年度剩余年限的现金流入与流出,以一个适当的利率加以折现后所得的期望值,特别注意这个公式对于股票与债券皆一体适用,不过这里有一点很重要但却很难克服差异的差异,那就是债券有债票与到期日可以清楚的定义未来的现金流入,但是就股票而言,投资者必须自己去分析未来可能得到的票息,更重要的是管理阶层的品质对于债券的影响相当有限,顶多因为公司无能或是诚信明显不足而延迟债息的发放,但是对于股票投资者来说,管理阶层的能力将大大影响未来票息发放的能力。

The investment shown by the discounted-flows-of-cash calculation to be the cheapest is the one that the investor should purchase - irrespective of whether the business grows or doesn't, displays volatility or smoothness in its earnings, or carries a high price or low in relation to its current earnings and book value. Moreover, though the value equation has usually shown equities to be cheaper than bonds, that result is not inevitable: When bonds are calculated to be the more attractive investment, they should be bought.

根据这种现金流量折现的公式计算,投资人应该选择的是价钱最低的那一种投资,不论他的盈余变化大不大、营收有没有成长,与现在的盈余以及帐面价值差多少,虽然大部分的状况下,投资股票所算出来的价值会比债券要来多划算,但是这却不是绝对,要是当债券所算出来的价值高于股票,则投资人应该买的就是债券。

Leaving the question of price aside, the best business to own is one that over an extended period can employ large amounts of incremental capital at very high rates of return. The worst business to own is one that must, or will, do the opposite - that is, consistently employ ever-greater amounts of capital at very low rates of return. Unfortunately, the first type of business is very hard to find: Most high-return businesses need relatively little capital. Shareholders of such a business usually will benefit if it pays out most of its earnings in dividends or makes significant stock repurchases.

今天先不管价格多少,最值得拥有的企业是那种在一段长的期间可以将大笔的资金运用在相当高报酬的投资上,最不值得拥有的企业是那种跟前面那个例子完全相反的,在一段长的期间将大笔的资金运用在相当低报酬的投资之上,不幸的是,第一类的企业可遇不可求,大部分拥有高报酬的企业都不需要太多的资金,这类企业的股东通常会因为公司发放大量的股利或是买回自家公司的股份而大大地受惠。

Though the mathematical calculations required to evaluate equities are not difficult, an analyst - even one who is experienced and intelligent - can easily go wrong in estimating future "coupons." At Berkshire, we attempt to deal with this problem in two ways. First, we try to stick to businesses we believe we understand. That means they must be relatively simple and stable in character. If a business is complex or subject to constant change, we're not smart enough to predict future cash flows. Incidentally, that shortcoming doesn't bother us. What counts for most people in investing is not how much they know, but rather how realistically they define what they don't know. An investor needs to do very few things right as long as he or she avoids big mistakes.

虽然评估股权投资的数学计算式并不难,但是即使是一个经验老到、聪明过人的分析师,在估计未来年度票息时也很容易发生错误,在Berkshire我们试图以两种方法来解决这个问题,首先我们试着坚守在我们自认为了解的产业之上,这表示他们本身通常相当简单且稳定,如果企业很复杂而产业环境也一直在变,我们实在是没有足够的聪明才智去预测其未来的现金流量,碰巧的是,这个缺点一点也不会让我们感到困扰,就投资而言,人们应该注意的,不是他到底知道多少,而是应该注意自己到底有多少是不知道的,投资人不需要花太多时间去做对的事,只要他能够尽量避免去犯重大的错误。

Second, and equally important, we insist on a margin of safety in our purchase price. If we calculate the value of a common stock to be only slightly higher than its price, we're not interested in buying. We believe this margin-of-safety principle, so strongly emphasized by Ben Graham, to be the cornerstone of investment success.

第二点一样很重要,那就是我们在买股票时,必须要坚持安全边际,若是我们所计算出来的价值只比其价格高一点,我们不会考虑买进,我们相信恩师葛拉罕十分强调的安全边际原则,是投资成功最关键的因素。

Fixed-Income Securities固定收益证券

Below we list our largest holdings of fixed-income securities:

下表是我们固定收益证券主要持有的部位:

(000s omitted) Cost of Preferreds andIssuer Amortized Value of Bonds Market


ACF Industries Debentures
 
American Express "Percs"
 
Champion International Conv. Pfd.
 
First Empire State Conv. Pfd
 
Salomon Conv. Pfd.
 
USAir Conv. Pfd
 
Washington Public Power Systems Bonds
 

$133,065(1)
 
300,000
 
300,000(1)
 
40,000
 
700,000(1)
 
358,000(1)
 
58,768(1)
 

$163,327
 
309,000(1)(2)
 
309,000(2)
 
68,000(1)(2)
 
756,000(2)
 
268,500(2)
 
81,002
 

(1) Carrying value in our financial statements (1)是指财务报表上的帐面价值

(2) Fair value as determined by Charlie and me (2)公平价值是由查理跟我来判断

During 1992 we added to our holdings of ACF debentures, had some of our WPPSS bonds called, and sold our RJR Nabisco position.

1992年我们增加了ACF债券的部位,另外华盛顿公用电力系统债券有部份被赎回,另外RJR Nabisco的部位则已出清。

Over the years, we've done well with fixed-income investments, having realized from them both large capital gains (including $80 million in 1992) and exceptional current income. Chrysler Financial, Texaco, Time-Warner, WPPSS and RJR Nabisco were particularly good investments for us. Meanwhile, our fixed-income losses have been negligible: We've had thrills but so far no spills.

过去几年来,我们在固定收益证券的表现还不错,靠着他们不但实现了相当大量的资本利得(包含1992年的8,000万)与利息收益,克莱斯勒、Texaco、时代华纳、WPPSS与RJR Nabisco都是相当好的投资,另一方面发生损失的部份也相当少,虽然过程一度紧张但幸好最后并没有搞砸。

Despite the success we experienced with our Gillette preferred, which converted to common stock in 1991, and despite our reasonable results with other negotiated purchases of preferreds, our overall performance with such purchases has been inferior to that we have achieved with purchases made in the secondary market. This is actually the result we expected. It corresponds with our belief that an intelligent investor in common stocks will do better in the secondary market than he will do buying new issues.

虽然我们在吉列特别股的投资还算是成功(在1991年转换为普通股),但整体而言,这类协议谈判所取得的特别股投资的绩效还是略逊于从次级市场所取得的投资,不过这种结果我们早已预期到,这与我们相信一个智能型的投资人在次级流通市场的表现会比初级发行市场来的好的道理是相同的。

The reason has to do with the way prices are set in each instance. The secondary market, which is periodically ruled by mass folly, is constantly setting a "clearing" price. No matter how foolish that price may be, it's what counts for the holder of a stock or bond who needs or wishes to sell, of whom there are always going to be a few at any moment. In many instances, shares worth xin business value have sold in the market for 1/2x or less.

原因与当初设定价格的方式有关,次级市场时常受惠于群众愚蠢的心理所影响,总是会有一个重新设定的全新价格,不管价格是多么的离谱,那都是代表该股票或债券的持有人想要出脱的价格,不论何时总会有一小部份的股东会有这种念头,在很多的情况下,一家具有X价值的股票往往以不到一半半数,也就是1/2X的价格求售。

The new-issue market, on the other hand, is ruled by controlling stockholders and corporations, who can usually select the timing of offerings or, if the market looks unfavorable, can avoid an offering altogether. Understandably, these sellers are not going to offer any bargains, either by way of a public offering or in a negotiated transaction: It's rare you'll find x for1/2x here. Indeed, in the case of common-stock offerings, selling shareholders are often motivated to unload only when they feel the market is overpaying. (These sellers, of course, would state that proposition somewhat differently, averring instead that they simply resist selling when the market is underpaying for their goods.)

至于初级发行市场则受到发行公司与大股东所掌控,通常会选择对他们最有利的时点发行,当市场状况不理想的时候,甚至会避开发行,可以理解的是,卖方不太可能让你有任何便宜可占,不管是透过公开发行或私下协议的方式都一样,你不可能以一半的价格买到你想要的东西,尤其是在发行普通股时,原有股东惟有在他们认为市场价格明显过高时,才有可能大幅出脱其持股,(这些卖方当然会换另外一种说词,强调如果市场过于低估其股份时,他们是不可能贱价出售的)。

To date, our negotiated purchases, as a group, have fulfilled but not exceeded the expectation we set forth in our 1989 Annual Report: "Our preferred stock investments should produce returns modestly above those achieved by most fixed-income portfolios." In truth, we would have done better if we could have put the money that went into our negotiated transactions into open-market purchases of the type we like. But both our size and the general strength of the markets made that difficult to do.

到目前为止,我们透过协议所作的投资,算是勉强达到我们在1989年年报所作的预期,这些特别股投资应该可以产生比一般固定收益债券还好一点的报酬,不可讳言若是我们当初不是透过协议而是直接在公开市场上买进类似的投资的话,我们的表现可能会更好,只是考量到我们的规模太大与市场的状况,这样的做法在执行上有其困难度。

There was one other memorable line in the 1989 Annual Report: "We have no ability to forecast the economics of the investment banking business, the airline industry, or the paper industry." At the time some of you may have doubted this confession of ignorance. Now, however, even my mother acknowledges its truth.

1989年报还有一段相当令人怀念的话,"我们没有能力去预测投资银行业、航空业或是造纸业的前景",在当时或许有很多人怀疑我们这样公开的承认有点无知,不过到如今,连我的母亲都不得不承认这项事实。

In the case of our commitment to USAir, industry economics had soured before the ink dried on our check. As I've previously mentioned, it was I who happily jumped into the pool; no one pushed me. Yes, I knew the industry would be ruggedly competitive, but I did not expect its leaders to engage in prolonged kamikaze behavior. In the last two years, airline companies have acted as if they are members of a competitive tontine, which they wish to bring to its conclusion as rapidly as possible.

就像我们在美国航空的投资,在我们签发支票的墨水还没干之前,产业情况就已经开始恶化,如同先前所提到的,没有人强迫我,是我自己心干情愿跳下水的,没错,我的确预期到这个产业竞争会变得相当激烈,但我没想到这个产业的领导者竟会从事长期自杀性的行为,过去两年以来,航空业者的行为就好象觉得自己是公务人员抢着办退休好领退休金一样,为求尽快达到目的而不择手段。

Amidst this turmoil, Seth Schofield, CEO of USAir, has done a truly extraordinary job in repositioning the airline. He was particularly courageous in accepting a strike last fall that, had it been lengthy, might well have bankrupted the company. Capitulating to the striking union, however, would have been equally disastrous: The company was burdened with wage costs and work rules that were considerably more onerous than those encumbering its major competitors, and it was clear that over time any high-cost producer faced extinction. Happily for everyone, the strike was settled in a few days.

在一遍混乱之中,美国航空的总裁-Seth Schofield在重新调整该公司体质之上,花了不少的工夫,尤其是去年秋天他勇于承担一次罢工事件,若是处置不当,再拖延下去很可能让公司面临倒闭的命运,而若是屈服于工会抗争的压力,则其下场一样悲惨,该公司所面对沉重的薪资成本与工会要求比起其它竞争同业来说,又更繁杂许多,而事实很明显任何成本过高的业者到最后终将面临淘汰的命运,还好罢工事件在发生几天后圆满地落幕。

A competitively-beset business such as USAir requires far more managerial skill than does a business with fine economics. Unfortunately, though, the near-term reward for skill in the airline business is simply survival, not prosperity.

对那些为竞争所苦的行业,如美国航空来说,比起一般产业更需要好的管理技巧,不过很不幸的是,这种技巧所带来的好处,只不过是让公司得以继续存活下去,并不能让公司如何地飞黄腾达。

In early 1993, USAir took a major step toward assuring survival - and eventual prosperity - by accepting British Airways' offer to make a substantial, but minority, investment in the company. In connection with this transaction, Charlie and I were asked to join the USAir board. We agreed, though this makes five outside board memberships for me, which is more than I believe advisable for an active CEO. Even so, if an investee's management and directors believe it particularly important that Charlie and I join its board, we are glad to do so. We expect the managers of our investees to work hard to increase the value of the businesses they run, and there are times when large owners should do their bit as well.

在1993年初,美国航空为确保存活以及长远发展,做了一项重大的决定-接受英国航空所提出的钜额的投资,透过这次的交易,查理跟我本人被邀请担任该公司的董事,我们同意接受,虽然此举将使得我要同时担任五家公司的外部董事,远超过我个人认为对公司能做的贡献,不过即便如此,只要我们的被投资公司以及其董事认为查理跟我加入其董事会,会对其公司有所帮助,我们还是会欣然接受,在我们期望旗下事业经理人拼死拼活为我们打拼以增加公司价值之时,身为公司大股东的我们有时也应该多尽一点自己的本分。

Two New Accounting Rules and a Plea for One More两个会计新原则,还有一个亟待增加的原则

A new accounting rule having to do with deferred taxes becomes effective in 1993. It undoes a dichotomy in our books that I have described in previous annual reports and that relates to the accrued taxes carried against the unrealized appreciation in our investment portfolio. At yearend 1992, that appreciation amounted to $7.6 billion. Against $6.4 billion of that, we carried taxes at the current 34% rate. Against the remainder of $1.2 billion, we carried an accrual of 28%, the tax rate in effect when that portion of the appreciation occurred. The new accounting rule says we must henceforth accrue all deferred tax at the current rate, which to us seems sensible.

一项与递延所得税有关的新颁会计原则在1993年开始生效,它取消了先前曾经在年报中提过会计帐上的二分法,而这又与我们帐上未实现投资利益所需提列的应付所得税有关,以1992年年底计,我们这部份未实现高达76亿美元,其中64亿我们以34%的税率估列应付所得税,剩下的12亿美元则以发生时点的28%估列,至于新的会计原则则要求我们以现行税率一体估计所得税,而我们也认为这样的做法较合理。

The new marching orders mean that in the first quarter of 1993 we will apply a 34% rate to all of our unrealized appreciation, thereby increasing the tax liability and reducing net worth by $70 million. The new rule also will cause us to make other minor changes in our calculation of deferred taxes.

新颁的命令代表我们从1993年的第一季开始我们股票未实现利益就必须以34%的税率来估算,因而增加我们所得税的负债,并使净值减少7,000万美元,新规定也使我们在计算递延所得税时,在几个地方做了点修正。

Future changes in tax rates will be reflected immediately in the liability for deferred taxes and, correspondingly, in net worth. The impact could well be substantial. Nevertheless, what is important in the end is the tax rate at the time we sell securities, when unrealized appreciation becomes realized.

往后若税率有做任何变动时,我们的递延所得税负债以及净值也必须马上跟着做调整,这个影响数可能会很大,不过不论如何,真正重要的是我们在最后出售证券而实现增值利益时,所适用的税率到底是多少。

Another major accounting change, whose implementation is required by January 1, 1993, mandates that businesses recognize their present-value liability for post-retirement health benefits. Though GAAP has previously required recognition of pensions to be paid in the future, it has illogically ignored the costs that companies will then have to bear for health benefits. The new rule will force many companies to record a huge balance-sheet liability (and a consequent reduction in net worth) and also henceforth to recognize substantially higher costs when they are calculating annual profits.

另一项会计原则的重大变动在1993年1月1日开始实行,要求所有企业必须认列公司员工应计的退休金负债,虽然先前一般公认会计原则也曾要求企业必须先认列未来必须支付的退休金,但却不合理地忽略企业未来必须承受的健康保险负担,新规定将会使得许多公司在资产负债表上认列一大笔负债(同时也会使得净值大幅减少),另一方面往后年度在结算成果时,也会因为须认列这方面的成本而使得获利缩水。

In making acquisitions, Charlie and I have tended to avoid companies with significant post-retirement liabilities. As a result, Berkshire's present liability and future costs for post-retirement health benefits - though we now have 22,000 employees - are inconsequential. I need to admit, though, that we had a near miss: In 1982 I made a huge mistake in committing to buy a company burdened by extraordinary post-retirement health obligations. Luckily, though, the transaction fell through for reasons beyond our control. Reporting on this episode in the 1982 annual report, I said: "If we were to introduce graphics to this report, illustrating favorable business developments of the past year, two blank pages depicting this blown deal would be the appropriate centerfold." Even so, I wasn't expecting things to get as bad as they did. Another buyer appeared, the business soon went bankrupt and was shut down, and thousands of workers found those bountiful health-care promises to be largely worthless.

另一方面查理跟我在进行购并时,也会尽量避开那些潜藏高额退休金负债的公司,也因此虽然Berkshire目前拥有超过22,000名的员工,但在退休金这方面的问题并不严重,不过我还是必须承认,在1982年时我曾经差点犯下大错买下一家背有沉重退休金负债的公司,所幸后来交易因为某项我们无法控制的因素而告吹,而在1982年年报中报告这段插曲时,我曾说:「如果在年报中我们要报告过去年度有何令人觉得可喜的进展,那么两大页空白的跨页插图,可能最足以代表当年度告吹的交易」不过即便如此,我也没有预期到后来情况会如此恶化,当时另外一家买主出现买下这家公司,结果过了没多久公司便走上倒闭关门的命运,公司数千名的员工也发现大笔的退休金健保承诺全部化为乌有。

In recent decades, no CEO would have dreamed of going to his board with the proposition that his company become an insurer of uncapped post-retirement health benefits that other corporations chose to install. A CEO didn't need to be a medical expert to know that lengthening life expectancies and soaring health costs would guarantee an insurer a financial battering from such a business. Nevertheless, many a manager blithely committed his own company to a self-insurance plan embodying precisely the same promises - and thereby doomed his shareholders to suffer the inevitable consequences. In health-care, open-ended promises have created open-ended liabilities that in a few cases loom so large as to threaten the global competitiveness of major American industries.

最近几十年来,没有一家公司的总裁会想到,有一天他必须向董事会提出这种没有上限的退休健保计画,他不须要具有专业的医学知识也知道越来越高的预期寿命以及健保支出将会把一家公司给拖垮,但是即便如此,很多经理人还是闭着眼睛让公司透过内部自保的方式,投入这种永无止尽的大坑洞,最后导致公司股东承担后果血本无归,就健保而言,没有上限的承诺所代表的就是没有上限的负债,这种严重的后果,甚至危急了一些美国大企业的全球竞争力。

I believe part of the reason for this reckless behavior was that accounting rules did not, for so long, require the booking of post-retirement health costs as they were incurred. Instead, the rules allowed cash-basis accounting, which vastly understated the liabilities that were building up. In effect, the attitude of both managements and their accountants toward these liabilities was "out-of-sight, out-of-mind." Ironically, some of these same managers would be quick to criticize Congress for employing "cash-basis" thinking in respect to Social Security promises or other programs creating future liabilities of size.

而我相信之所以会有这种不顾后果的行为,一部份原因是由于会计原则并没有要求公司将这种潜藏的退休金负债呈现在会计帐上,相反地,会计原则允许业者采取现金基础制,此举大大地低估了负债,而公司的经营阶层与签证会计师所采取的态度就是眼不见为净,而讽刺的是,这些经理人还常常批评国会对于社会保险采用现金基础的思惟,根本就不顾未来年度所可能产生的庞大负债。

Managers thinking about accounting issues should never forget one of Abraham Lincoln's favorite riddles: "How many legs does a dog have if you call his tail a leg?" The answer: "Four, because calling a tail a leg does not make it a leg." It behooves managers to remember that Abe's right even if an auditor is willing to certify that the tail is a leg.

经理人在思索会计原则时,一定要谨记林肯总统本身最常讲的一句俚语:「如果一只狗连尾巴也算在内的话,总共有几条腿﹖ 答案还是四条腿,因为不论你是不是把尾巴当作是一条腿,尾巴永远还是尾巴!」,这句话提醒经理人就算会计师愿意帮你证明尾巴也算是一条腿,你也不会因此多了一条腿。

The most egregious case of let's-not-face-up-to-reality behavior by executives and accountants has occurred in the world of stock options. In Berkshire's 1985 annual report, I laid out my opinions about the use and misuse of options. But even when options are structured properly, they are accounted for in ways that make no sense. The lack of logic is not accidental: For decades, much of the business world has waged war against accounting rulemakers, trying to keep the costs of stock options from being reflected in the profits of the corporations that issue them.

提到公司主管与会计师鸵鸟心态,最极端的例子就是发行认股权这档子事,在Berkshire 1985年的年报中,我曾经对于认股权的滥用表示过个人的看法,但是即便是认股权规划得当,在许多方面这种做法还是显得相当没有道理,然而缺乏逻辑绝对不是第一次,几十年来,企业界就不断地向会计原则制定者进行攻击,意图将发行认股权的相关成本排除在企业的损益表之外。

Typically, executives have argued that options are hard to value and that therefore their costs should be ignored. At other times managers have said that assigning a cost to options would injure small start-up businesses. Sometimes they have even solemnly declared that "out-of-the-money" options (those with an exercise price equal to or above the current market price) have no value when they are issued.

通常企业主管会辩称很难衡量选择权的价值,也因此其成本应该可以被忽略,有时经理人也会说若认列这方面的成本,将不利于新成立公司的发展,有时他们甚至义正词严地指出处于价外(亦即行使的价格等于或是高于现在的股价)的选择权在发行时并没有价值。

Oddly, the Council of Institutional Investors has chimed in with a variation on that theme, opining that options should not be viewed as a cost because they "aren't dollars out of a company's coffers." I see this line of reasoning as offering exciting possibilities to American corporations for instantly improving their reported profits. For example, they could eliminate the cost of insurance by paying for it with options. So if you're a CEO and subscribe to this "no cash-no cost" theory of accounting, I'll make you an offer you can't refuse: Give us a call at Berkshire and we will happily sell you insurance in exchange for a bundle of long-term options on your company's stock.

很奇怪的是机构投资人协会这时也插进来表示不同的意见,他们认为选择权不应当被视作为一种成本,因为从头到尾公司根本就不需要从口袋里掏出一毛钱,我认为这样的理由等于是给了所有美国企业大幅改善帐面获利的难得良机,例如他们可以以选择权的方式来支付公司的保险费,所以如果由你来担任CEO,同时充分地运用这种不付现金就没又支出的会计理论,我绝对可以提出一个你无法拒绝的条件,打个电话到Berkshire给我们,我们很愿意以取得贵公司长期认股权的代价,接受你们的保单。

Shareholders should understand that companies incur costs when they deliver something of value to another party and not just when cash changes hands. Moreover, it is both silly and cynical to say that an important item of cost should not be recognized simply because it can't be quantified with pinpoint precision. Right now, accounting abounds with imprecision. After all, no manager or auditor knows how long a 747 is going to last, which means he also does not know what the yearly depreciation charge for the plane should be. No one knows with any certainty what a bank's annual loan loss charge ought to be. And the estimates of losses that property-casualty companies make are notoriously inaccurate.

公司股东们必须了解当公司将某些有价值的东西交给别人,实际上就已经发生成本了,而不是等到现金付出去时才算,还有一点,如果有人说因为所付出的实在是难以准确衡量,因此就可以不须认列成本,这实在是既愚蠢又让人啼笑皆非的说法。会计这档子事本来就充满的不确定性,有哪一个经理人或是会计师可以正确的预估一架波音747客机的寿命到底有多久,那么难道他就不能估列这架飞机一年所需分担的折旧费用有多少吗? 何况像是产险业的损失估计更是有名的不准。

Does this mean that these important items of cost should be ignored simply because they can't be quantified with absolute accuracy? Of course not. Rather, these costs should be estimated by honest and experienced people and then recorded. When you get right down to it, what other item of major but hard-to-precisely-calculate cost - other, that is, than stock options - does the accounting profession say should be ignored in the calculation of earnings?

所以难道这类重大的成本项目,就可以因为一句难以估计而加以省略吗? 当然不行,相反地这些成本应该由诚实有经验的人加以估算并认列在帐上,而说到这里,没有其它任何成本,会像员工认股权成本金额既高影响更重大的了,难道会计师在计算年度损益时真的可以将这个项目刻意省略不计吗?

Moreover, options are just not that difficult to value. Admittedly, the difficulty is increased by the fact that the options given to executives are restricted in various ways. These restrictions affect value. They do not, however, eliminate it. In fact, since I'm in the mood for offers, I'll make one to any executive who is granted a restricted option, even though it may be out of the money: On the day of issue, Berkshire will pay him or her a substantial sum for the right to any future gain he or she realizes on the option. So if you find a CEO who says his newly-issued options have little or no value, tell him to try us out. In truth, we have far more confidence in our ability to determine an appropriate price to pay for an option than we have in our ability to determine the proper depreciation rate for our corporate jet.

更何况,选择权也不是那么地难以估计,虽然授与经理人的选择权,因为加了许多限制条款,而使得计算的难度增加,所代表的价值也略微减少,但却从不表示他们就完全没有价值,事实上,如果我们旗下的经理人愿意,我也可以提供给他们有限制的认股权作为报酬奖励,而在发行的那天,虽然行使的价格远高于现在的市价,但Berkshire还是必须因此付出一大笔金额,好让他们能在未来年度行使这项认股权,所以如果若你遇到任何一位总裁跟你说他发行的认股权一点价值都没有的话,告诉他来找我们试一试,事实上比起决定企业专机每年的折旧费用,对于认股权的评价我们觉得有信心多了。

It seems to me that the realities of stock options can be summarized quite simply: If options aren't a form of compensation, what are they? If compensation isn't an expense, what is it? And, if expenses shouldn't go into the calculation of earnings, where in the world should they go?

总而言之,个人对于认股权的看法可以归纳为以下简单几点。如果认股权不算是对经理人的一种报酬的话,那么它又算是什么? 而如果一家公司可以不必把报酬列为是一种费用的话,那么它又算是什么? 又如果一家公司可以不必把费用列入盈余计算的话,那么它到底又跑到哪里去了呢?

The accounting profession and the SEC should be shamed by the fact that they have long let themselves be muscled by business executives on the option-accounting issue. Additionally, the lobbying that executives engage in may have an unfortunate by-product: In my opinion, the business elite risks losing its credibility on issues of significance to society - about which it may have much of value to say - when it advocates the incredible on issues of significance to itself.

会计学者以及证管会应该对于选择权会计长期受到企业牵制而感到羞愧,此外企业长期不遗余力的游说也会产生相当不良的副作用,个人认为,企业人士竟会为了一己之私利而干冒为社会尽一份心力、失去重大议题公信力的风险。

Miscellaneous其它事项

We have two pieces of regrettable news this year. First, Gladys Kaiser, my friend and assistant for twenty-five years, will give up the latter post after the 1993 annual meeting, though she will certainly remain my friend forever. Gladys and I have been a team, and though I knew her retirement was coming, it is still a jolt.

今年我们有两件遗憾的消息,首先Gladys Kaiser我个人的朋友同时也是我25年的助理决定在1993年股东会后,辞去后面那项职务,虽然她永远都是我的好朋友,长久以来Gladys与我已培养出相当好的团队默契,虽然我老早就知道她准备退休的计画,但一时之间我还是不太能够接受这项事实。

Secondly, in September, Verne McKenzie relinquished his role as Chief Financial Officer after a 30-year association with me that began when he was the outside auditor of Buffett Partnership, Ltd. Verne is staying on as a consultant, and though that job description is often a euphemism, in this case it has real meaning. I expect Verne to continue to fill an important role at Berkshire but to do so at his own pace. Marc Hamburg, Verne's understudy for five years, has succeeded him as Chief Financial Officer.

第二去年九月Verne McKenzie辞去在本公司长达30年的财务长职位,早期Verne曾担任巴菲特合伙企业的签证会计师,不过他将以顾问的名义继续留在Berkshire,虽然在大部分的情形下,这种顾问名义只是形式性的,但Verne却是真的会在Berkshire扮演重要的角色,只是会稍做调整以符合他本身的步调,而跟在Verne已有五年之久的Marc Hamburg,将会接替Verne担任Berkshire财务长的位置。

I recall that one woman, upon being asked to describe the perfect spouse, specified an archeologist: "The older I get," she said, "the more he'll be interested in me." She would have liked my tastes: I treasure those extraordinary Berkshire managers who are working well past normal retirement age and who concomitantly are achieving results much superior to those of their younger competitors. While I understand and empathize with the decision of Verne and Gladys to retire when the calendar says it's time, theirs is not a step I wish to encourage. It's hard to teach a new dog old tricks.

我一直记得有个女人曾经被问到什么样的男人是最理想的终身伴侣,她回答说:「考古学家!因为我越老,他就越对我有兴趣。」我想她也应该会喜欢我的品味,对于Berkshire这群老早就超过他们退休年龄的资深经理人,我特别珍惜,因为相较之下他们远比那些年轻许多的同侪表现要出色的多,不过我还是相当尊重Verne与Gladys决定退休的想法,时间到了就必须休息,当然我也绝对不鼓励其它人这样做,因为实在很难教新狗老把戏。

I am a moderate in my views about retirement compared to Rose Blumkin, better known as Mrs. B. At 99, she continues to work seven days a week. And about her, I have some particularly good news.

对于退休年龄的看法比起B太太我可算是温和的多,现年99岁的她还是一样每周工作七天,提到她我有一项好消息要报告。

You will remember that after her family sold 80% of Nebraska Furniture Mart (NFM) to Berkshire in 1983, Mrs. B continued to be Chairman and run the carpet operation. In 1989, however, she left because of a managerial disagreement and opened up her own operation next door in a large building that she had owned for several years. In her new business, she ran the carpet section but leased out other home-furnishings departments.

大家应该记得当B太太家族在1983年买NFM 80%的股权卖给Berkshire时, B太太还是继续留下来担任负责人并经营地毯生意,然而在1989年,她因为管理意见与其它家族成员不合而决定在隔壁自己再开一家店,在那里她亲自经营地毯生意,至于家具的部份则租给其它家具百货业者经营。

At the end of last year, Mrs. B decided to sell her building and land to NFM. She'll continue, however, to run her carpet business at its current location (no sense slowing down just when you're hitting full stride). NFM will set up shop alongside her, in that same building, thereby making a major addition to its furniture business.

不过去年底,B太太决定把这家店连同土地全部卖回给NFM,但她还是会继续在原来的地方经营她的地毯生意(在这样的情况下,她还是一点都没有停下来的意思),NFM将会在她店的旁边增设家具部门以扩大营运。

I am delighted that Mrs. B has again linked up with us. Her business story has no parallel and I have always been a fan of hers, whether she was a partner or a competitor. But believe me, partner is better.

我很高兴B太太可以再度与我们合伙做生意,她成功的故事实在是前所未有,而我本人也是她忠实的支持者,不管她是我们的伙伴或是竞争对手,当然最好是能成为伙伴。

This time around, Mrs. B graciously offered to sign a non-compete agreement - and I, having been incautious on this point when she was 89, snapped at the deal. Mrs. B belongs in the Guinness Book of World Records on many counts. Signing a non-compete at 99 merely adds one more.

有鉴于上次她89岁时,我在签约时疏忽掉,这一次经过B太太的首肯,同意签下竞业禁止的条款了,B太太有好几项记录可以名列金氏世界记录之中,在99岁签下竞业禁止条款,只不过是再增添一项罢了。

Ralph Schey, CEO of Scott Fetzer and a manager who I hope is with us at 99 also, hit a grand slam last year when that company earned a record $110 million pre-tax. What's even more impressive is that Scott Fetzer achieved such earnings while employing only $116 million of equity capital. This extraordinary result is not the product of leverage: The company uses only minor amounts of borrowed money (except for the debt it employs - appropriately - in its finance subsidiary).

Ralph Schey-史考特飞兹的总裁,也是另一位我希望他能够一直工作到99岁的经理人,在去年击出了满贯全垒打,总计去年创造出1.1亿美元的税前获利,更令人印象深刻的是史考特飞兹总计也不过用了1.16亿美元的资本,就缔造出这样惊人的盈余数字,而且这样的结果并没有靠任何的财务杠杆,整个公司只有少量的借款(扣除旗下的财务金融子公司所运用的借款不算)。

Scott Fetzer now operates with a significantly smaller investment in both inventory and fixed assets than it had when we bought it in 1986. This means the company has been able to distribute more than 100% of its earnings to Berkshire during our seven years of ownership while concurrently increasing its earnings stream - which was excellent to begin with - by a lot. Ralph just keeps on outdoing himself, and Berkshire shareholders owe him a great deal.

史考特飞兹现在在存货与固定资产上的投资比起当初我们在1986年买下该公司时还要少,这代表着公司不但可以将我们拥有该公司七年的期间,所赚到的盈余全部分配给我们,同时还能继续保持获利能力大幅度的成长,Ralph不断地超越自我,而Berkshire欠他的也越来越多。

Those readers with particularly sharp eyes will note that our corporate expense fell from $5.6 million in 1991 to $4.2 million in 1992. Perhaps you will think that I have sold our corporate jet, The Indefensible. Forget it! I find the thought of retiring the plane even more revolting than the thought of retiring the Chairman. (In this matter I've demonstrated uncharacteristic flexibility: For years I argued passionately against corporate jets. But finally my dogma was run over by my karma.)

眼尖的读者应该会发现,1992年420万美元的营业费用,比起1991年的560万还要少的多,或是各位会以为是我把企业专机-无可辩解号给卖掉了,别做梦!除非我退休,否则别想打这架飞机的主意,(对于这点我个人展现了前所未有的弹性,早年对于企业专机我曾大力反对,不过到最后我的理念还是屈服在个人的因果报应之下)。

Our reduction in corporate overhead actually came about because those expenses were especially high in 1991, when we incurred a one-time environmental charge relating to alleged pre-1970 actions of our textile operation. Now that things are back to normal, our after-tax overhead costs are under 1% of our reported

operating earnings and less than 1/2 of 1% of our look-through earnings. We have no legal, personnel, public relations, investor relations, or strategic planning departments. In turn this means we don't need support personnel such as guards, drivers, messengers, etc. Finally, except for Verne, we employ no consultants. Professor Parkinson would like our operation - though Charlie, I must say, still finds it outrageously fat.

其实公司营业费用的减少主要是因为1991年的费用特别高的缘故,当时因为一次性地提列早期1970年代纺织事业与环境相关的费用所致,而现在一切回复正常,所以我们税后的费用占帐列税后盈余的比率不到1%,占年度透视盈余的比率更低于0.5%,在Berkshire我们没有法律、人事、公关或是营运企划部门,这同时也代表我们不需要警卫、司机或是跑腿的人,最后除了Vernre以外,我们也没有任何的顾问,Parkinson教授一定会喜欢我们的营运模式,虽然我必须说查理还是觉得我们的组织过于庞杂。

At some companies, corporate expense runs 10% or more of operating earnings. The tithing that operations thus makes to headquarters not only hurts earnings, but more importantly slashes capital values. If the business that spends 10% on headquarters' costs achieves earnings at its operating levels identical to those achieved by the business that incurs costs of only 1%, shareholders of the first enterprise suffer a 9% loss in the value of their holdings simply because of corporate overhead. Charlie and I have observed no correlation between high corporate costs and good corporate performance. In fact, we see the simpler, low-cost operation as more likely to operate effectively than its bureaucratic brethren. We're admirers of the Wal-Mart, Nucor, Dover, GEICO, Golden West Financial and Price Co. models.

在某些公司,营业费用可能占营业利益10%以上,这种十分法不但对于盈余有来说,投资人可能因为企业总部额外的费用,立即就要遭受9%以上的损失,查理跟我这么多年观察下来的结果,企业总部的高成本与公司的绩效改善之间可以说是完全没有关系,事实上我们认为组织越简单、成本越低的公司运作起来会比那些拥有庞大官僚组织的公司更有效率的多,就这点而言,我们相当佩服Wal-Mart、Nucor、Dover、GEICO与Golden West等公司。

Late last year Berkshire's stock price crossed $10,000. Several shareholders have mentioned to me that the high price causes them problems: They like to give shares away each year and find themselves impeded by the tax rule that draws a distinction between annual gifts of $10,000 or under to a single individual and those above $10,000. That is, those gifts no greater than $10,000 are completely tax-free; those above $10,000 require the donor to use up a portion of his or her lifetime exemption from gift and estate taxes, or, if that exemption has been exhausted, to pay gift taxes.

去年底Berkshire的股价正式超越10,000美元大关,有许多股东反应高股价让他们产生相当的困扰,因为他们每年必须分出部份股份,却发现Berkshire的股份价值超过10,000美元年度赠与税上限的门槛,因为超过上限代表捐赠人必须使得个人终身捐赠的上限额度,而且若是再超过的话,就必须要缴赠与税。

I can suggest three ways to address this problem. The first would be useful to a married shareholder, who can give up to $20,000 annually to a single recipient, as long as the donor files a gift tax return containing his or her spouse's written consent to gifts made during the year.

对于这个问题,我个人提出三种解决的方案,第一对于已婚的股东,可以与配偶共同利用20,000美元的额度,只要在申报年度赠与税时,附上配偶的同意书即可。

Secondly, a shareholder, married or not, can make a bargain sale. Imagine, for example, that Berkshire is selling for $12,000 and that one wishes to make only a $10,000 gift. In that case, sell the stock to the giftee for $2,000. (Caution: You will be taxed on the amount, if any, by which the sales price to your giftee exceeds your tax basis.)

第二不论结婚与否,股东可以考虑以较低的价格进行转让,例如假设Berkshire的股价为12,000美元,则股东可以考虑用2,000元的价格进行移转,则其间10,000美元的差价则视同赠与,(但是大家还是必须注意,若是价差超过你本身累积的免税额度时,还是要被课赠与税)。

Finally, you can establish a partnership with people to whom you are making gifts, fund it with Berkshire shares, and simply give percentage interests in the partnership away each year. These interests can be for any value that you select. If the value is $10,000 or less, the gift will be tax-free.

最后,你可考虑与你要赠与的对象成立合伙关系,以Berkshire的股份参与合伙,然后每年再将部份权益慢慢移转给合伙人,金额的大小可以由你自行决定,只要每年不超过10,000美元的上限,即可免课赠与税。

We issue the customary warning: Consult with your own tax advisor before taking action on any of the more esoteric methods of gift-making.

不过照惯例我们还是要提出警告,在从事比这些例子更极端的交易之前,最好还是跟你的税务顾问咨询一下比较妥当。

We hold to the view about stock splits that we set forth in the 1983 Annual Report. Overall, we believe our owner-related policies - including the no-split policy - have helped us assemble a body of shareholders that is the best associated with any widely-held American corporation. Our shareholders think and behave like rational long-term owners and view the business much as Charlie and I do. Consequently, our stock consistently trades in a price range that is sensibly related to intrinsic value.

在1983年的年报中,我们曾经提到对于股票分割我们持保留的态度,毕竟我们相信我们以股东利益为优先的政策,也包含不分割股份在内,使得我们得以组成一群全美国企业中,最优秀的股东阵容,我们的股东不论是在想法或是做法上,都是长期稳健的投资人,同时与查理跟我一样看重公司,也因此Berkshire的股价也才能一直与公司本身的实质价值保持一致。

Additionally, we believe that our shares turn over far less actively than do the shares of any other widely-held company. The frictional costs of trading - which act as a major "tax" on the owners of many companies - are virtually non-existent at Berkshire. (The market-making skills of Jim Maguire, our New York Stock Exchange specialist, definitely help to keep these costs low.) Obviously a split would not change this situation dramatically. Nonetheless, there is no way that our shareholder group would be upgraded by the new shareholders enticed by a split. Instead we believe that modest degradation would occur.

此外,我相信Berkshire股份的周转率比起其它公开发行的公司来说,要低的许多,股权交易所产生的摩擦成本,或是我们称之为持有股权主要的税负,在Berkshire身上几乎是看不到,(在纽约证券交易所负责我们股份交易的营业员-Jim Maguire藉由其搓合市场的能力使得我们的交易成本进一步下降),而很显然地,股份分割对于交易成本的降低贡献着实有限,而且股份分割也不可以使我们的股东阵容水准进一步提高,相反的我们认为因为股份分割而被引吸上门的新股东可能会使得我们的股东水准变得更低。

As I mentioned earlier, on December 16th we called our zero-coupon, convertible debentures for payment on January 4, 1993. These obligations bore interest at 5 1/2%, a low cost for funds when they were issued in 1989, but an unattractive rate for us at the time of call.

先前曾经提到过,在12月16日我们宣布将于1993年1月4号将先前所发行的零息可转换债券赎回,这些债务在1989年发行的时候,所背负的资金成本大约在5.5%左右,在当时算是相当低的利率,但时至今日这样的利率水准并不吸引人,所以我们决定将他们给赎回。

The debentures could have been redeemed at the option of the holder in September 1994, and 5 1/2% money available for no longer than that is not now of interest to us. Furthermore, Berkshire shareholders are disadvantaged by having a conversion option outstanding. At the time we issued the debentures, this disadvantage was offset by the attractive interest rate they carried; by late 1992, it was not.

这些债券其持有人可选择在1994年9月以5.5%的利率要求公司赎回,此外Berkshire有可转换的权利流通在外,对其他股东而言,实在不是件有利的事,当然当初债券发行时,其利率水准相对对我们有利。

In general, we continue to have an aversion to debt, particularly the short-term kind. But we are willing to incur modest amounts of debt when it is both properly structured and of significant benefit to shareholders.

总的来说,我们还是尽量避免举债,尤其是短期的借款,不过若是规划得当且对于股东有利的话,我们也不排斥承担少量的债务。

About 97% of all eligible shares participated in Berkshire's 1992 shareholder-designated contributions program. Contributions made through the program were $7.6 million, and 2,810 charities were recipients. I'm considering increasing these contributions in the future at a rate greater than the increase in Berkshire's book value, and I would be glad to hear from you as to your thinking about this idea.

大约有97%的有效股权参与1992年的股东指定捐赠计划,总计约760万美元捐出的款项分配给2,810家慈善机构,目前我正考虑是否该提高提拨捐赠的比率使得其超越Berkshire本身净值增加的幅度,同时我也很愿意听到各位对于这件事情的看法。

We suggest that new shareholders read the description of our shareholder-designated contributions program that appears on pages 48-49. To participate in future programs, you must make sure your shares are registered in the name of the actual owner, not in the nominee name of a broker, bank or depository. Shares not so registered on August 31, 1993 will be ineligible for the 1993 program.

我们敦促新加入的股东,仔细阅读年报上有关股东捐赠计画的详细内容,如果在未来年度内,你想要参加这类的计画,我们强烈建议你将股份登记在自己而不是受托人的名下,必须在1993年8月31日之前完成登记,才有权利参与1993年的捐赠计画。

In addition to the shareholder-designated contributions that Berkshire distributes, managers of our operating businesses make contributions, including merchandise, averaging about $2.0 million annually. These contributions support local charities, such as The United Way, and produce roughly commensurate benefits for our businesses.

Berkshire除了透过股东指定捐赠计画对外捐赠之外,我们旗下事业的经理人每年也会透过公司对外捐赠,包含商品在内每年平均金额约在150万美元左右。这些捐赠主要是赞助当地像是联合劝募等慈善团体,所得的效益应该与我们所捐出的相当。

However, neither our operating managers nor officers of the parent company use Berkshire funds to make contributions to broad national programs or charitable activities of special personal interest to them, except to the extent they do so as shareholders. If your employees, including your CEO, wish to give to their alma maters or other institutions to which they feel a personal attachment, we believe they should use their own money, not yours.

然而不管是旗下事业或是母公司的经理人在利用Berkshire的资金对外捐赠给全国性组织或特别利益团体时,都是以站在股东利益立场所应该做的,相对地若是你的员工也包含CEO在内,想要与其校友会或其它人建立个人关系的,我们认为他们最好是用自己的钱,而不是从你的口袋里掏钱。

This year the Annual Meeting will be held at the Orpheum Theater in downtown Omaha at 9:30 a.m. on Monday, April 26, 1993. A record 1,700 people turned up for the meeting last year, but that number still leaves plenty of room at the Orpheum.

今年的股东会预计在1993年4月26日,星期一早上9点30分在位于奥玛哈市中心的Orpheum中心召开,去年股东会参加人数又创新高突破1,700人,不过会场还是剩下很多座位。

We recommend that you get your hotel reservations early at one of these hotels: (1) The Radisson-Redick Tower, a small (88 rooms) but nice hotel across the street from the Orpheum; (2) the much larger Red Lion Hotel, located about a five-minute walk from the Orpheum; or (3) the Marriott, located in West Omaha about 100 yards from Borsheim's, which is a twenty minute drive from downtown. We will have buses at the Marriott that will leave at 8:30 and 8:45 for the meeting and return after it ends.

我们建议大家最好先向以下旅馆预订房间(1)Radisson-Redick旅馆-就位在Orpheum中心对街拥有88个房间的一家小旅馆(2)较大一点的Red Lion旅馆-离Orpheum中心约五分钟路程,或是(3)Marriott位在奥玛哈西区,离波仙珠宝店约100公尺,开车到市中心约需20分钟,届时将会有巴士接送大家往返股东会会场。

Charlie and I always enjoy the meeting, and we hope you can make it. The quality of our shareholders is reflected in the quality of the questions we get: We have never attended an annual meeting anywhere that features such a consistently high level of intelligent, owner-related questions.

查理跟我一向都很喜欢开股东会,我也希望大家能够来参加,我们股东的素质可由大家所提出的问题看得出来,我们参加过很多股东会,但从来没有别的公司的股东像Berkshire的股东一样由高智能水准与经营者荣枯与共的股东组合。

An attachment to our proxy material explains how you can obtain the card you will need for admission to the meeting. With the admission card, we will enclose information about parking facilities located near the Orpheum. If you are driving, come a little early. Nearby lots fill up quickly and you may have to walk a few blocks.

后面附有股东会开会投票的相关资料,跟各位解释如何拿到入场所许的识别证,由于开会当天会场不好停车,如果你开车过来,记得早一点到,否则附近的车位很快就会停满,你可能就必须要停远一点,再走路过来。

As usual, we will have buses to take you to Nebraska Furniture Mart and Borsheim's after the meeting and to take you from there to downtown hotels or the airport later. I hope that you will allow plenty of time to fully explore the attractions of both stores. Those of you arriving early can visit the Furniture Mart any day of the week; it is open from 10 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. on Saturdays and from noon to 5:30 p.m. on Sundays. While there, stop at the See's Candy Cart and find out for yourself why Charlie and I are a good bit wider than we were back in 1972 when we bought See's.

一如往年,会后我们备有巴士带大家到内布拉斯加家具店与波仙珠宝店或是到饭店与机场,我希望大家能有多一点的时间好好探索这两家店的奥妙,当然早几天到的股东也可利用假日逛逛家具店,星期六从早上10点到下午5点30分,星期日则从中午开到下午5点30分,到那里时记得到喜斯糖果摊逛逛,你就知道为何我跟查理在1972年买下喜斯之后,腰围会有如此大的变化了。

Borsheim's normally is closed on Sunday but will be open for shareholders and their guests from noon to 6 p.m. on Sunday, April 25. Charlie and I will be in attendance, sporting our jeweler's loupes, and ready to give advice about gems to anyone foolish enough to listen. Also available will be plenty of Cherry Cokes, See's candies, and other lesser goodies. I hope you will join us.

波仙星期天通常不开门营业,但在股东会期间特别为股东与来宾开放,4月25日星期天从中午开到下午6点,当天查理跟我都会带着放大镜出席,预备提供任何人都知道的,如何鉴定宝石的基本常识,现场还备有樱桃可乐、喜斯糖果及其它纪念品,我希望大家都能够来参加。

一九九三

Our per-share book value increased 14.3% during 1993. Over the last 29 years (that is, since present management took over) book value has grown from $19 to $8,854, or at a rate of 23.3% compounded annually.

1993年本公司的净值成长了14.3%,总计过去29年以来,也就是自从现有经营阶层接手之后,每股净值由当初的19元成长到现在的8,854美元,年复合成长率约为23.3%。

During the year, Berkshire's net worth increased by $1.5 billion, a figure affected by two negative and two positive non-operating items. For the sake of completeness, I'll explain them here. If you aren't thrilled by accounting, however, feel free to fast-forward through this discussion:

回顾过去一年,Berkshire的净值增加了15亿美元,主要受到两项负面以及两项正面非营业的因素所影响,为了做完整的表达,我将它们条列如下,若是大家对于会计有点感冒,大可直接跳过本段不看。

1. The first negative was produced by a change in Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) having to do with the taxes we accrue against unrealized appreciation in the securities wecarry at market value. The old rule said that the tax rate used should be the one in effect when the appreciation took place. Therefore, at the end of 1992, we were using a rate of 34% on the $6.4 billion of gains generated after 1986 and 28% on the $1.2 billion of gains generated before that. The new rule stipulates that the current tax rate should be applied to all gains. The rate in the first quarter of 1993, when this rule went into effect, was 34%.Applying that rate to our pre-1987 gains reduced net worth by $70 million.

1.一个负面因素是由于一般公认会计原则变动所造成,主要与帐上依照市价计算的未实现增值利益所估列的所得税有关,原来规定税率必须按照涨价所发生时点来计算,因此在1992年底,我们的未实现利益也64亿美元系按照34%计算,其余12亿则按28%计算;而新的规定则改成全部依照现行税率计算,故1993年第一季所适用的税率则为34%,包含1987年以前的未实现利得在内全部适用,此举将使得我们的净值因此减少7,000万美元。

2. The second negative, related to the first, came about because the corporate tax rate was raised in the third quarter of 1993 to 35%. This change required us to make an additional charge of 1% against all of our unrealized gains, and that charge penalized net worth by $75 million. Oddly, GAAP required both this charge and the one described above to be deducted from the earnings we report, even though the unrealized appreciation that gave rise to the charges was never included in earnings, but rather was credited directly to net worth.

2.第二个负面因素与第一个也有关,因为从1993年开始企业税率提高为35%,此举又使得我们必须为帐上未实现利得多提1%的税负,导致我们的净值又减少7,500万美元,奇怪的是一般公认会计原则要求这两项变动皆须列入损益表,却不顾当初这些未实现利得根本就从未列入盈余之内,而是直接当作是净值的增加。

3. Another 1993 change in GAAP affects the value at which we carry the securities that we own. In recent years, both the common stocks and certain common-equivalent securities held by our insurance companies have been valued at market, whereas equities held by our non-insurance subsidiaries or by the parent company were carried at their aggregate cost or market, whichever was lower. Now GAAP says that all common stocks should be carried at market, a rule we began following in the fourth quarter of 1993. This change produced a gain in Berkshire's reported net worth of about $172million.

3.1993年另外一个会计原则的变动影响的则是我们帐上持有的这些有价证券的价值,近几年来,我们保险公司所持有的不管是普通股或是约当普通股,都是按市价计算,至于母公司或是其它非保险业子公司所持有的的股票则以成本与市价孰低法计算,现在一般公认会计原则则改成全部都按市价计算,这个规定将从1993年的第四季开始实施,此举将使得Berkshire的净值增加1.72亿美元。

4. Finally, we issued some stock last year. In a transaction described in last year's Annual Report, we issued 3,944 shares in early January, 1993 upon the conversion of $46 million convertible debentures that we had called for redemption. Additionally, we issued 25,203 shares when we acquired Dexter Shoe, a purchase discussed later in this report. The overall result was that our shares outstanding increased by 29,147 and our net worth by about $478 million. Per-share book value also grew, because the shares issued in these transactions carried a price above their book value.

4.最后去年我们又发行的一些股份,在一项去年曾提过的购并交易中,我们在1993年一月将4,600万美元的可转换债券赎回,而发行了3,944股,此外在买下Dexter鞋业时,(后面报告还会详加叙述)我们又发行了25,203股,总计一共新发行了29,147股,增加4.78亿美元的净值,每股帐面净值也因发行价格高于原先帐面每股净值而提升。

Of course, it's per-share intrinsic value, not book value, that counts. Book value is an accounting term that measures the capital, including retained earnings, that has been put into a business. Intrinsic value is a present-value estimate of the cash that can be taken out of a business during its remaining life. At most companies, the two values are unrelated. Berkshire, however, is an exception: Our book value, though significantly below our intrinsic value, serves as a useful device for tracking that key figure. In 1993, each measure grew by roughly 14%, advances that I would call satisfactory but unexciting.

当然真正重要的是每股实质价值而非帐面净值,帐面净值是一个会计名词,用来衡量一家公司所投入的资本,也包含未分配的盈余在内,实质价值则是对于一家企业终其一生所能产生现金流量的估计折现值,对大部分的公司来说,这两个数字大多不相关,不过Berkshire算是一个例外,我们的帐面净值,虽然远低于实质价值,但却是追踪实质价值相当好的一项指针,在1993年两项数值大约皆以14%左右的比率增加,这种成绩虽让人满意却不令人惊喜。

These gains, however, were outstripped by a much larger gain - 39% - in Berkshire's market price. Over time, of course, market price and intrinsic value will arrive at about the same destination. But in the short run the two often diverge in a major way, a phenomenon I've discussed in the past. Two years ago, Coca-Cola and Gillette, both large holdings of ours, enjoyed market price increases that dramatically outpaced their earnings gains. In the 1991 Annual Report, I said that the stocks of these companies could not continuously overperform their businesses.

这些利得比起Berkshire本身股价39%的涨幅来说还是略微逊色,当然就长期而言,Berkshire的市价与实质价值将会到达相同的水平,但短期而言,两者的变化可能会有很大的差异,这种现象稍后我们会再详细讨论,两年前我们两项主要的投资可口可乐与吉列刮胡刀的股价表现远超过本身的盈余成长,在1991年的年报中,我便说过这些公司的股票市价不可能永远持续超越其本业。

From 1991 to 1993, Coke and Gillette increased their annual operating earnings per share by 38% and 37% respectively, but their market prices moved up only 11% and 6%. In other words, the companies overperformed their stocks, a result that no doubt partly reflects Wall Street's new apprehension about brand names. Whatever the reason, what will count over time is the earnings performance of these companies. If they prosper, Berkshire will also prosper, though not in a lock-step manner.

从1991年到1993年,可口可乐与吉列刮胡刀每股获利的增加幅度分别为38%与37%,但是同期间股票市价的涨幅却只有11%与6%,换句话说,这些公司的表现超越股票市场,主要的原因还在于华尔街对于品牌有很深的疑虑,但是不管怎样,真正重要的还是这些公司本身的获利情况,如果他们经营顺利,Berkshire也就跟着水涨船高,虽然不是依照一步步稳定的方式前进。

Let me add a lesson from history: Coke went public in 1919 at $40 per share. By the end of 1920 the market, coldly reevaluating Coke's future prospects, had battered the stock down by more than 50%, to $19.50. At yearend 1993, that single share, with dividends reinvested, was worth more than $2.1 million. As Ben Graham said: "In the short-run, the market is a voting machine - reflecting a voter-registration test that requires only money, not intelligence or emotional stability - but in the long-run, the market is a weighing machine."

接着让我为各位上一次历史课,1919年可口可乐股票以每股40美元公开上市,到了1920年由于市场对于可口可乐的前景看法相当冷淡,而将股价下修一半至19.5美元,然而时至今日,1993年底,若是将收到的股利再重复投资下去,则当初股票的价值将变成210万美元,就像葛拉罕所说:「短期而言,市场是投票机器,投资人不须靠智能或情绪控制,只要有钱都可以登记参加投票,但就长期而言,股票市场却是一个体重机。」

So how should Berkshire's over-performance in the market last year be viewed? Clearly, Berkshire was selling at a higher percentage of intrinsic value at the end of 1993 than was the case at the beginning of the year. On the other hand, in a world of 6% or 7% long-term interest rates, Berkshire's market price was not inappropriate if - and you should understand that this is a huge if - Charlie Munger, Berkshire's Vice Chairman, and I can attain our long-standing goal of increasing Berkshire's per-share intrinsic value at an average annual rate of 15%. We have not retreated from this goal. But we again emphasize, as we have for many years, that the growth in our capital base makes 15% an ever-more difficult target to hit.

所以我们应该如何看待Berkshire去年的股价超越本质的表现呢? 很明显的在1993年底Berkshire的股价占实质价值比重较年初为高,另外一方面,在长期利率只有6%到7%的投资环境下,同时若是你了解查理孟格跟本人只能让Berkshire的实质价值每年达到15%的成长的话,你就知道Berkshire去年这样的股价表现实在是有点反常,虽然对于这样的目标我们从不妥协,但我们必须再一次强调,随着资本规模的日益扩大,想要达到这个目标的困难度也与日俱增。

What we have going for us is a growing collection of good-sized operating businesses that possess economic characteristics ranging from good to terrific, run by managers whose performance ranges from terrific to terrific. You need have no worries about this group.

不过另一方面,伴随我们的是由一些相当规模且拥有竞争优势的企业,并且由杰出的经理人所经营,对于这样的梦幻组合大家大可以放心。

The capital-allocation work that Charlie and I do at the parent company, using the funds that our managers deliver to us, has a less certain outcome: It is not easy to find new businesses and managers comparable to those we have. Despite that difficulty, Charlie and I relish the search, and we are happy to report an important success in 1993.

倒是查理跟我在母公司利用子公司所贡献资金所作的资金分配工作,所面临的不确定性就比较高,要找到像我们现在拥有一样好的企业并不容易,但是虽然难度高,查理跟我却绝对不会放弃追寻,而很高兴在1993年我们能有相当成功的斩获。

Dexter ShoeDetxter 鞋业

What we did last year was build on our 1991 purchase of H. H. Brown, a superbly-run manufacturer of work shoes, boots and other footwear. Brown has been a real winner: Though we had high hopes to begin with, these expectations have been considerably exceeded thanks to Frank Rooney, Jim Issler and the talented managers who work with them. Because of our confidence in Frank's team, we next acquired Lowell Shoe, at the end of 1992. Lowell was a long-established manufacturer of women's and nurses' shoes, but its business needed some fixing. Again, results have surpassed our expectations. So we promptly jumped at the chance last year to acquire Dexter Shoe of Dexter, Maine, which manufactures popular-priced men's and women's shoes. Dexter, I can assure you, needs no fixing: It is one of the best-managed companies Charlie and I have seen in our business lifetimes.

去年我们所做的乃是基于1991年买进HH布朗鞋业-一家管理良善的鞋子、靴子制造公司的续曲,布朗鞋业成为一家真正成功的赢家,虽然一开始我们就对他就有相当高的标准,但是在Frank与其它经理人的努力之下,这家公司的表现甚至还超过我们的预期,基于我们对Frank团队的信心,接着在1992年年底我们又买下Lowell鞋业,Lowell是一家女鞋与护士鞋的老牌制造公司,不过他的管理还需要改进,再一次他的表现又超乎我们的预期,所以我们立刻又再接再厉在去年又趁机买下缅因州的Dexter鞋业,一家专门制造高级男女鞋的品牌,这次我可以向大家保证Dexter并不需要改造,Dexter是查理跟我在职业生涯中,所见过最好的公司之一。

Harold Alfond, who started working in a shoe factory at 25 cents an hour when he was 20, founded Dexter in 1956 with $10,000 of capital. He was joined in 1958 by Peter Lunder, his nephew. The two of them have since built a business that now produces over 7.5 million pairs of shoes annually, most of them made in Maine and the balance in Puerto Rico. As you probably know, the domestic shoe industry is generally thought to be unable to compete with imports from low-wage countries. But someone forgot to tell this to the ingenious managements of Dexter and H. H. Brown and to their skilled labor forces, which together make the U.S. plants of both companies highly competitive against all comers.

话说Harold Alfond从20岁以时薪25美分开始到制鞋工厂做工,并在1956年靠着一万美元的资本创立Dexter,1958年他的侄子Peter加入,从此两人建立起年产750万双鞋子的企业,大部分的鞋子都在缅因州生产,其余的则在波多黎各,就像大家都知道的,国内的制鞋业,一般被认为无法与国外进口低价产品竞争,但是大家似乎忘记提醒布朗鞋业与Dexter经营团队有这么一回事,是他们让两家公司位于美国的工厂拥有高度的竞争力以对抗外来的入侵者。

Dexter's business includes 77 retail outlets, located primarily in the Northeast. The company is also a major manufacturer of golf shoes, producing about 15% of U.S. output. Its bread and butter, though, is the manufacture of traditional shoes for traditional retailers, a job at which it excels: Last year both Nordstrom and J.C. Penney bestowed special awards upon Dexter for its performance as a supplier during 1992.

Dexter还包含77家的零售门市,主要集中在西北地区,该公司同时也是高尔夫球鞋的主要制造商,全美的市场占有率约为15%,不过他的主要业务还是传统通路商的传统鞋类,这也是它最擅长的领域,去年Dexter还获得Nordstrom与JC Penny所颁发的年度最佳供货商奖项。

Our 1993 results include Dexter only from our date of merger, November 7th. In 1994, we expect Berkshire's shoe operations to have more than $550 million in sales, and we would not be surprised if the combined pre-tax earnings of these businesses topped $85 million. Five years ago we had no thought of getting into shoes. Now we have 7,200 employees in that industry, and I sing "There's No Business Like Shoe Business" as I drive to work. So much for strategic plans.

Berkshire只能从1993年11月7号购并日后开始计入Dexter的业绩,在1994年我们预计Berkshire光是在鞋类方面的销售额就达到5.5亿美元,而总计税前获利极有可能超过8,500万,记得在五年前我们根本就没想到会跨进鞋类这一行,现在光是在这个产业所雇用的员工就超过7,200人,现在我每天上班,都会边开车边唱,没有一个行业会像卖鞋这一行,策略计画还有很多发挥的空间。

At Berkshire, we have no view of the future that dictates what businesses or industries we will enter. Indeed, we think it's usually poison for a corporate giant's shareholders if it embarks upon new ventures pursuant to some grand vision. We prefer instead to focus on the economic characteristics of businesses that we wish to own and the personal characteristics of managers with whom we wish to associate - and then to hope we get lucky in finding the two in combination. At Dexter, we did.

在Berkshire,对于将来会进入那个产业,我们并没有特定的看法,事实上,我们常在想对于一家大型企业的股东来说,与其追求具有远景的新创事业有时反而有害,所以我们比较偏爱专注于那些我们想要拥有的经济型态以及我们喜爱一起共事的经理人,剩下的就只看我们有没有足够的运气,找到同时拥有这两项特点的组合了,在Dexter我们确实找到了。

And now we pause for a short commercial: Though they owned a business jewel, we believe that Harold and Peter (who were not interested in cash) made a sound decision in exchanging their Dexter stock for shares of Berkshire. What they did, in effect, was trade a 100% interest in a single terrific business for a smaller interest in a large group of terrific businesses. They incurred no tax on this exchange and now own a security that can be easily used for charitable or personal gifts, or that can be converted to cash in amounts, and at times, of their own choosing. Should members of their families desire to, they can pursue varying financial paths without running into the complications that often arise when assets are concentrated in a private business.

接下来让我们休息一下,进段小广告,虽然他们拥有商业界的宝石,但我们也相信Harold与Peter(他们对于现金都不感兴趣)做了一个正确的决定,将Dexter的股份转为Berkshire的股份,他们所做的,实际上等于将一家规模小的好公司的全部权益转成一家大规模好公司的一部份权益,这样的转换并不会产生租税负担,同时还可享有依个人意愿随时进行赠与或变现的好处,如果他们的家族成员有意愿,他们可以依照自己的想法追求不同的目标,而不必像过去那样所有的资产全部绑在一家私人的企业。

For tax and other reasons, private companies also often find it difficult to diversify outside their industries. Berkshire, in contrast, can diversify with ease. So in shifting their ownership to Berkshire, Dexter's shareholders solved a reinvestment problem. Moreover, though Harold and Peter now have non-controlling shares in Berkshire, rather than controlling shares in Dexter, they know they will be treated as partners and that we will follow owner-oriented practices. If they elect to retain their Berkshire shares, their investment result from the merger date forward will exactly parallel my own result. Since I have a huge percentage of my net worth committed for life to Berkshire shares - and since the company will issue me neither restricted shares nor stock options - my gain-loss equation will always match that of all other owners.

基于租税规划以及其它理由,私人企业通常很难透过延伸本业以外的投资达到分散风险的目的,相对的,在Berkshire我们可以很轻易地就多角化,因此藉由经营权移转至Berkshire,Dexter的股东可以很轻易地就解决转投资的问题,更重要的是,虽然Harold与Peter现在持有的是Berkshire无控制权的股份,而不是原先Dexter具控制权的股份,但他们很清楚自己将被视为真正的合伙人,同时我们也会以经营者的心态参与,所以一旦他们决定将自己的投资转为Berkshire的股份,那么从合并那天开始,他们就可以确定本身的投资成果将会与我个人的投资成果相当,而因为我个人绝大部份的身家都摆在Berkshire,也因为我个人从不会自公司身上取得特殊的股份或员工认股权,所以我个人的成败得失也将与其它所有公司股权持有人一致。

Additionally, Harold and Peter know that at Berkshire we can keep our promises: There will be no changes of control or culture at Berkshire for many decades to come. Finally, and of paramount importance, Harold and Peter can be sure that they will get to run their business - an activity they dearly love - exactly as they did before the merger. At Berkshire, we do not tell .400 hitters how to swing.

此外,Harold与Peter也相当了解,在Berkshire我们言出必行,在可见的未来几十年内,Berkshire的控制权与文化将不会有所改变,最后同时也是最重要的一点,Harold与Peter可以确定将能够继续经营原来的企业,这是他们最喜爱的工作,这点不会因为合并案完成而有任何的改变,在Berkshire,我们不会鸡婆地去提醒打击率高达四成的强打者应该要如何挥棒。

What made sense for Harold and Peter probably makes sense for a few other owners of large private businesses. So, if you have a business that might fit, let me hear from you. Our acquisition criteria are set forth in the appendix on page 22.

我想这些的道理同样也适合其它大型私人企业的所有者,所以如果你有公司的情况符合我们的标准的,请务必让我知道,在年报的后段有我们拟购并企业的标准。

Sources of Reported Earnings帐列盈余的来源

The table below shows the major sources of Berkshire's reported earnings. In this presentation, amortization of Goodwill and other major purchase-price accounting adjustments are not charged against the specific businesses to which they apply, but are instead aggregated and shown separately. This procedure lets you view the earnings of our businesses as they would have been reported had we not purchased them. I've explained in past reports why this form of presentation seems to us to be more useful to investors and managers than one utilizing GAAP, which requires purchase-price adjustments to be made on a business-by-business basis. The total net earnings we show in the table are, of course, identical to the GAAP total in our audited financial statements.

下表显示Berkshire帐列盈余的主要来源,在这张表中商誉的摊销数与购买法会计调整数会从个别被投资公司分离出来,单独加总列示,之所以这样做是为了让旗下各事业的盈余状况,不因我们的投资而有所影响,过去我一再地强调我们认为这样的表达方式,较之一般公认会计原则要求以个别企业基础做调整,不管是对投资者或是管理者来说,更有帮助,当然最后损益加总的数字仍然会与经会计师查核的数字一致。

(000s omitted) Berkshire's Share of Net Earnings (after taxes and Pre-Tax Earnings minority interests)

Operating Earnings: Insurance Group:


 
 
Underwriting
 
Net Investment Income
 
H. H. Brown, Lowell, and Dexter
 
Buffalo News
 
Commercial & Consumer Finance
 
Fechheimer
 
Kirby
 

1993
 
$ 30,876
 
375,946
 
44,025*
 
50,962
 
22,695
 
13,442
 
39,147
 

1992
 
$(108,961)
 
355,067
 
27,883
 
47,863
 
19,836
 
13,698
 
35,653
 

1993
 
$ 20,156
 
321,321
 
28,829
 
29,696
 
14,161
 
6,931
 
25,056
 

1992
 
$(71,141)
 
305,763
 
17,340
 
28,163
 
12,664
 
7,267
 
22,795
 

 


 
 
Nebraska Furniture Mart
 
Scott Fetzer Manufacturing Group
 
See's Candies
 
World Book
 
Purchase-Price Accounting &

Goodwill Charges
 
Interest Expense**
 
Shareholder-Designated

Contributions
 
Other
 

1993
 
21,540
 
38,196
 
41,150
 
19,915
 
(17,033)
 
(56,545)
 
(9,448)
 
28,428
 

1992
 
17,110
 
31,954
 
42,357
 
29,044
 
(12,087)
 
(98,643)
 
(7,634)
 
67,540
 

1993
 
10,398
 
23,809
 
24,367
 
13,537
 
(13,996)
 
(35,614)
 
(5,994)
 
15,094
 

1992
 
8,072
 
19,883
 
25,501
 
19,503
 
(13,070)
 
(62,899)
 
(4,913)
 
32,798
 

 


 
 
Operating Earnings
 
Sales of Securities
 
Tax Accruals Caused by New Accounting Rules
 
Total Earnings - All Entities
 

1993
 
643,296
 
546,422
 
   -----------
 
$1,189,718
 

1992
 
460,680
 
89,937
 
   -----------
 
$ 550,617
 

1993
 
477,751
 
356,702
 
(146,332)
 
$688,121
 

1992
 
347,726
 
59,559
 
   -----------
 
$407,285
 

* Includes Dexter's earnings only from the date it was acquired, November 7, 1993.

*Dexter的盈余仅含购并日1993年11月7日以后的盈余

**Excludes interest expense of Commercial and Consumer Finance businesses. In 1992 includes $22.5 million of premiums paid on the early redemption of debt.

**不含商业与消费金融公司的利息费用,另外1992年部份还包含2,250万提前赎回债券的溢价。

A large amount of information about these businesses is given on pages 38-49, where you will also find our segment earnings reported on a GAAP basis. In addition, on pages 52-59, we have rearranged Berkshire's financial data into four segments on a non-GAAP basis, a presentation that corresponds to the way Charlie and I think about the company. Our intent is to supply you with the financial information that we would wish you to give us if our positions were reversed.

在年报中你可以找到依照一般公认会计原则编制,详细的部门别信息,至于我们的目的是希望给你所有查理跟我认为在评估Berkshire价值时,应该必要的资讯。

"Look-Through" Earnings透视盈余

We've previously discussed look-through earnings, which we believe more accurately portray the earnings of Berkshire than does our GAAP result. As we calculate them, look-through earnings consist of: (1) the operating earnings reported in the previous section, plus; (2) the retained operating earnings of major investees that, under GAAP accounting, are not reflected in our profits, less; (3) an allowance for the tax that would be paid by Berkshire if these retained earnings of investees had instead been distributed to us. The "operating earnings" of which we speak here exclude capital gains, special accounting items and major restructuring charges.

之前我们曾经讨论过透视盈余,其主要的组成份子有(1)前段所提到的帐列盈余,加上(2)主要被投资公司的保留盈余,按一般公认会计原则未反应在我们公司帐上的盈余,扣除(3)若这些未反应的盈余分配给我们时,估计可能要缴的所得税。在这里我们所谓的营业盈余系扣除资本利得、特别会计调整与企业调整的主要支出。

Over time, our look-through earnings need to increase at about 15% annually if our intrinsic value is to grow at that rate. Last year, I explained that we had to increase these earnings to about $1.8 billion in the year 2000, were we to meet the 15% goal. Because we issued additional shares in 1993, the amount needed has risen to about $1.85 billion.

长期而言,如果我们的实质价值想要以每年15%的幅度来成长的话,那么透视盈余每年也必须增加以这个幅度来成长,去年我曾经提到,到公元2000年为止,Berkshire若要以15%的目标,透视盈余必须成长到18亿美元,而由于1993年我们又发行了一些新股,所以现在的门槛提高到18.5亿美元。

That is a tough goal, but one that we expect you to hold us to. In the past, we've criticized the managerial practice of shooting the arrow of performance and then painting the target, centering it on whatever point the arrow happened to hit. We will instead risk embarrassment by painting first and shooting later.

这是一个高难度的目标,不过也希望大家能够继续支持我们,在过去我们常常批评有些管理阶层总是先把箭射出去后再划上准心,不管这箭射得有多歪,因此关于这点我们宁愿先标出准心,然后再瞄准目标射箭。

If we are to hit the bull's-eye, we will need markets that allow the purchase of businesses and securities on sensible terms. Right now, markets are difficult, but they can - and will - change in unexpected ways and at unexpected times. In the meantime, we'll try to resist the temptation to do something marginal simply because we are long on cash. There's no use running if you're on the wrong road.

如果我们想要命中靶心,那么我们绝对需要有能以合理价格买到好的公司与股份的市场,不过对我们来说,现在市场上的情况并不理想,当然这种情况随时都有可能会改变,在此同时,我们也会尽量避免手上闲钱太多而去做那些浪费工夫的蠢事,若方向不对,再怎么努力冲刺也是白费力气。

The following table shows how we calculate look-through earnings, though I warn you that the figures are necessarily very rough. (The dividends paid to us by these investees have been included in the operating earnings itemized on page 8, mostly under "Insurance Group: Net Investment Income.")

各位可以从下表看出我们是如何计算透视盈余的,不过我还是要提醒各位这些数字有点粗糙,(被投资公司所分配的股利收入已经包含在保险事业的净投资收益项下)。

Berkshire's Share of Undistributed

Berkshire's Approximate Operating Earnings

Berkshire's Major Investees Ownership at Yearend (in millions)


 
 
Capital Cities/ABC, Inc
 
The Coca-Cola Company
 
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp.
 
GEICO Corp
 
General Dynamics Corp
 
The Gillette Company
 
Guinness PLC
 
The Washington Post Company
 
Wells Fargo & Company
 

1993
 
13.0%
 
7.2%
 
6.8%(1)
 
48.4%
 
13.9%
 
10.9%
 
1.9%
 
14.8%
 
12.2%
 

1992
 
18.2%
 
7.1%
 
8.2%(1)
 
48.1%
 
14.1%
 
10.9%
 
2.0%
 
14.6%
 
11.5%
 

1993
 
$ 83(2)
 
94
 
41(2)
 
76(3)
 
25
 
44
 
8
 
15
 
53(2)
 

1992
 
$ 70
 
82
 
29(2)
 
34(3)
 
11(2)
 
38
 
7
 
11
 
16(2)
 

Berkshire's share of undistributed earnings of major investees $439 $298

Hypothetical tax on these undistributed investee earnings(4) (61) (42)

Reported operating earnings of Berkshire 478 348

Total look-through earnings of Berkshire $856 $604

(1) Does not include shares allocable to the minority interest不包含Wesco的少数股权

(2) Calculated on average ownership for the year以年平均持有股权比例计算

(3) Excludes realized capital gains, which have been both recurring and significant扣除重复发生且金额大的已实现资本利得,

(4) The tax rate used is 14%, which is the rate Berkshire pays on the dividends it receives适用的税率为14%,这是Berkshire收到现金股利时的平均税率。

We have told you that we expect the undistributed, hypothetically-taxed earnings of our investees to produce at least equivalent gains in Berkshire's intrinsic value. To date, we have far exceeded that expectation. For example, in 1986 we bought three million shares of Capital Cities/ABC for $172.50 per share and late last year sold one-third of that holding for $630 per share. After paying 35% capital gains taxes, we realized a $297 million profit from the sale. In contrast, during the eight years we held these shares, the retained earnings of Cap Cities attributable to them - hypothetically taxed at a lower 14% in accordance with our look-through method - were only $152 million. In other words, we paid a much larger tax bill than our look-through presentations to you have assumed and nonetheless realized a gain that far exceeded the undistributed earnings allocable to these shares.

我曾告诉过各位,我们预估这些已依估计税率调整过的未分配盈余至少可以为Berkshire创造出同等的实质价值,而到目前为止,其真正的结果甚至超乎我们的预期,举例来说,我们在1986年以每股172.5美元的价格买进300万股资本城/ABC公司的股份,去年我们以每股630美元的价格处分了其中的三分之一,在支付35%的资本利得税后,我们实现2.97亿美元的税后盈余,相对地,在我们持有这些股份的八年期间,经由这些股份资本城公司分配给我们的透视盈余在扣除估计14%的所得税之后,只有1.52亿美元,换句话说,透过出售这些股份,所获取的利益,即便在扣除较高的所得税负之后,还是比原先透过持股所分配到的盈余还要高出许多。

We expect such pleasant outcomes to recur often in the future and therefore believe our look-through earnings to be a conservative representation of Berkshire's true economic earnings.

而我们也预期这样的情况在未来还会持续发生,因此我们相信Berkshire所计算的透视盈余,算是相当保守的表达方式。

Taxes税负

As our Cap Cities sale emphasizes, Berkshire is a substantial payer of federal income taxes. In aggregate, we will pay 1993 federal income taxes of $390 million, about $200 million of that attributable to operating earnings and $190 million to realized capital gains. Furthermore, our share of the 1993 federal and foreign income taxes paid by our investees is well over $400 million, a figure you don't see on our financial statements but that is nonetheless real. Directly and indirectly, Berkshire's 1993 federal income tax payments will be about 1/2 of 1% of the total paid last year by all American corporations.

就像是刚刚提到的资本城股份出售案,Berkshire可以说是联邦政府的缴税大户,总计在1993年,我们总共缴了3.9亿美元的所得税,其中2亿属于本业获利,另外1.9亿则源自于资本利得,此外我们的被投资公司另外向联邦政府与国外政府又缴交了超过4亿美元的所得税,这是你在本公司的财务报表上看不到,但却又确实存在的,直接再加上间接合计,Berkshire占去年所有美国企业缴给联邦政府所得税总额的1.5%。

Speaking for our own shares, Charlie and I have absolutely no complaint about these taxes. We know we work in a market-based economy that rewards our efforts far more bountifully than it does the efforts of others whose output is of equal or greater benefit to society. Taxation should, and does, partially redress this inequity. But we still remain extraordinarily well-treated.

对于这个比例,查理跟我本人一点怨言也没有,我们知道我们是在一个市场导向的经济社会,我们努力所收到的报酬,其比例甚至比一些对这个社会有更多贡献的人还要多,透过租税政策,多多少少可以降低这种不合理性,不过即便是如此,我们还是认为自己受到特别优厚的待遇。

Berkshire and its shareholders, in combination, would pay a much smaller tax if Berkshire operated as a partnership or "S" corporation, two structures often used for business activities. For a variety of reasons, that's not feasible for Berkshire to do. However, the penalty our corporate form imposes is mitigated - though far from eliminated - by our strategy of investing for the long term. Charlie and I would follow a buy-and-hold policy even if we ran a tax-exempt institution. We think it the soundest way to invest, and it also goes down the grain of our personalities. A third reason to favor this policy, however, is the fact that taxes are due only when gains are realized.

虽然Berkshire若是以合伙或S型企业的形式来经营,(在美国许多商业活动确实是以这两种形态在运作),Berkshire跟其所有的股东,总的来说可以大大减少所需负担的税负,但基于许多理由,那样的做法并不适合Berkshire的运作,所幸我们以企业形态运作的模式所受到的租税惩罚,因为我们采取长期投资的策略而稍稍减轻,虽然就算是证交所得免税,查理跟我还是会坚持遵照买进并持有的策略,这是我们认为最好的投资方式,同时也最符合我们的个人特质,当然第三个好处就是因为这样做可以使我们只有在实现资本利得时才需要缴税。

Through my favorite comic strip, Li'l Abner, I got a chance during my youth to see the benefits of delayed taxes, though I missed the lesson at the time. Making his readers feel superior, Li'l Abner bungled happily, but moronically, through life in Dogpatch. At one point he became infatuated with a New York temptress, Appassionatta Van Climax, but despaired of marrying her because he had only a single silver dollar and she was interested solely in millionaires. Dejected, Abner took his problem to Old Man Mose, the font of all knowledge in Dogpatch. Said the sage: Double your money 20 times and Appassionatta will be yours (1, 2, 4, 8 . . . . 1,048,576).

经由我个人最喜爱的漫画短片,Li'l Abner,我有机会可以体会到延迟支付所得税的好处,虽然当时我没有好好地利用那次机会,为了让他的读者觉得自己很优越,Li'l Abner一直快乐地维持单身,直到他为纽约一位女演员Appassionatta深深地着迷,但由于她只对百万富翁有兴趣,因此一贫如洗的Abner可以说是一点希望都没有,在遭到拒绝之后,Abner跑去智能老人Mose那里请他指点迷津,结果这位圣贤对Abner说,很简单你只要能够将身上仅有的一块钱,复制20次,Appassionatta自然就会投入到你的怀抱(1,2,4,8,….,1,048,576)。

My last memory of the strip is Abner entering a roadhouse, dropping his dollar into a slot machine, and hitting a jackpot that spilled money all over the floor. Meticulously following Mose's advice, Abner picked up two dollars and went off to find his next double. Whereupon I dumped Abner and began reading Ben Graham.

我记得这段漫画的最后一段是Abner跑到一家旅馆,将他仅有的一块钱投入吃角子老虎中,结果竟然中了七星,一时之间奖金掉满地,没想到他老兄一丝不苟遵照Mose老人的旨意,只捡起了其中的两块钱之后,就出发去寻找下一次复制的机会,看到这里我便舍弃了Abner,并开始研读葛拉汉的理论。

Mose clearly was overrated as a guru: Besides failing to anticipate Abner's slavish obedience to instructions, he also forgot about taxes. Had Abner been subject, say, to the 35% federal tax rate that Berkshire pays, and had he managed one double annually, he would after 20 years only have accumulated $22,370. Indeed, had he kept on both getting his annual doubles and paying a 35% tax on each, he would have needed 7 1/2 years more to reach the $1 million required to win Appassionatta.

Mose很显然地不配当他人的精神导师,除了低估Abner对于他的指示过于盲从的程度,他也忘了考虑到可能的税负,假设今天Abner也像Berkshire一样必须负担高达35%的联邦所得税的话,而且他每年只能成功地复制一次的话,就算连续20年都如他所愿,他也只能累积到22,370元,当然若是他能持之以恒地保持这样的记录的话,他则还须多等上七年半,才能累积到所需的100万以赢得Appassionatta的芳心。

But what if Abner had instead put his dollar in a single investment and held it until it doubled the same 27 1/2 times? In that case, he would have realized about $200 million pre-tax or, after paying a $70 million tax in the final year, about $130 million after-tax. For that, Appassionatta would have crawled to Dogpatch. Of course, with 27 1/2 years having passed, how Appassionatta would have looked to a fellow sitting on $130 million is another question.

然而要是Abner只将资金放在单一不变的投资之上,同时连续27年半都能保持每年倍数成长的记录的话,这样到最后,他在税前可以累积高达二亿美元的获利,或是在扣除7,000万美元的所得税之后,得到税后1亿3,000万美元的利益,届时可能会换做是Appassionatta爬着来求他了,当然等到27年后,一个坐拥1亿多美元的富翁会怎么看待年华老去的Appassionatta,则又是另外一回事了。

What this little tale tells us is that tax-paying investors will realize a far, far greater sum from a single investment that compounds internally at a given rate than from a succession of investments compounding at the same rate. But I suspect many Berkshire shareholders figured that out long ago.

这宗小故事告诉我们必须负担税负的投资人从每年固定以一个比率成长的单一投资上,可以获得比每年更换投资对象所得的多的多,即便是两者成长的幅度一样也是如此,不过我怀疑许多Berkshire的股东老早就已经知道这个道理了。

Insurance Operations保险事业营运

At this point in the report we've customarily provided you with a table showing the annual "combined ratio" of the insurance industry for the preceding decade. This ratio compares total insurance costs (losses incurred plus expenses) to revenue from premiums. For many years, the ratio has been above 100, a level indicating an underwriting loss. That is, the industry has taken in less money each year from its policyholders than it has had to pay for operating expenses and for loss events that occurred during the year.

接下来到这里我们通常会准备一张表来说明保险业过去十多年来的综合比率,综合比率代表保险的总成本(理赔损失加上费用)占保费收入的比例,多年以来,比率在100以下代表有承保的损失,也就是说,保险业者当年度从客户那里收到的保费,不足以支应必须支付给保户的理赔款以及营运所需的费用开支。

Offsetting this grim equation is a happier fact: Insurers get to hold on to their policyholders' money for a time before paying it out. This happens because most policies require that premiums be prepaid and, more importantly, because it often takes time to resolve loss claims. Indeed, in the case of certain lines of insurance, such as product liability or professional malpractice, many years may elapse between the loss event and payment.

当然若是两者能够相等,将会是一个很令人高兴的结局,因为保险业者在真正支付给客户理赔金之前,通常有一段时间可以将这笔钱好好地运用,因为大部分的保单都是先向客户收取保费,更重要的是,通常得花上一段时间才会将损失理赔款给付出去,尤其是像产品责任险或是专门职业执行业务不当等保险,通常要花上好几年的时间,才能将理赔损失定案。

To oversimplify the matter somewhat, the total of the funds prepaid by policyholders and the funds earmarked for incurred-but-not-yet-paid claims is called "the float." In the past, the industry was able to suffer a combined ratio of 107 to 111 and still break even from its insurance writings because of the earnings derived from investing this float.

再讲白一点,这些保户预付的保险费加上那些已经发生但还未理赔的资金统称为保险浮存金,在过去,利用这些浮存金创造投资收益,使得整个保险业即使面临高达107到111的综合比率,却依然可以维持损益两平。

As interest rates have fallen, however, the value of float has substantially declined. Therefore, the data that we have provided in the past are no longer useful for year-to-year comparisons of industry profitability. A company writing at the same combined ratio now as in the 1980's today has a far less attractive business than it did then.

不过随着利率下滑,保险浮存金的价值大幅滑落,因此过去我们提供的比率已经无法用来衡量保险业者每年的获利状况比较,今天一家拥有相同综合比率的保险公司比起1980年代来说,已无法同日而语。

Only by making an analysis that incorporates both underwriting results and the current risk-free earnings obtainable from float can one evaluate the true economics of the business that a property-casualty insurer writes. Of course, the actual investment results that an insurer achieves from the use of both float and stockholders' funds is also of major importance and should be carefully examined when an investor is assessing managerial performance. But that should be a separate analysis from the one we are discussing here. The value of float funds - in effect, their transfer price as they move from the insurance operation to the investment operation - should be determined simply by the risk-free, long-term rate of interest.

我们认为只有将保险业的承保结果与保险浮存金可以获得的无风险盈余做分析,才有办法正确地评估一家产物意外险公司真正的价值,当然一家保险公司利用其浮存金与股东资金所能创造的投资收益也相当重要,这点也是投资人在该公司的经营表现时,必须特别注意的,只不过那需要分开另外分析,而不是我们现在要讨论的主题。事实上,保险浮存金的价值,关键在于其从保险营运移转至投资营运的转拨价格,这点可以简单的以长期无风险的资金利率作为标准。

On the next page we show the numbers that count in an evaluation of Berkshire's insurance business. We calculate our float - which we generate in exceptional amounts relative to our premium volume - by adding loss reserves, loss adjustment reserves and unearned premium reserves and then subtracting agent's balances, prepaid acquisition costs and deferred charges applicable to assumed reinsurance. Our cost of float is determined by our underwriting loss or profit. In those years when we have had an underwriting profit, which includes 1993, our cost of float has been negative, and we have determined our insurance earnings by adding underwriting profit to float income.

下一页我们将会列出如何计算出Berkshire保险事业价值,首先先计算浮存金总额-相对于我们的保费收入总额,我们的浮存金部位算是相当大的,将所有的损失准备、损失费用调整准备与未赚取保费加总后,再扣除应付佣金、预付购并成本及相关再保递延费用,至于浮存金的成本则决定于所发生的承保损失或利益而定,在某些年度由于我们有承保利益,所以换句话说,我们的资金成本甚至是负的,此时我们的保险事业盈余等于是由原先从浮存金获取的利益再加上承保利益。

(1) (2) Yearend Yield

Underwriting Approximate on Long-TermLoss Average Float Cost of Funds Govt. Bonds (In $ Millions) (Ratio of 1 to 2)


1967
 
profit $ 17.3 less than zero 5.50%
 
1981
 
profit 228.4 less than zero 13.61%
 

1968
 
profit 19.9 less than zero 5.90%
 
1982
 
21.56 220.6 9.77% 10.64%
 

1969
 
profit 23.4 less than zero 6.79%
 
1983
 
33.87 231.3 14.64% 11.84%
 

1970
 
$ 0.37 32.4 1.14% 6.25%
 
1984
 
48.06 253.2 18.98% 11.58%
 

1971
 
profit 52.5 less than zero 5.81%
 
1985
 
44.23 390.2 11.34% 9.34%
 

1972
 
profit 69.5 less than zero 5.82%
 
1986
 
55.84 797.5 7.00% 7.60%
 

1973
 
profit 73.3 less than zero 7.27%
 
1987
 
55.43 1,266.7 4.38% 8.95%
 

1974
 
7.36 79.1 9.30% 8.13%
 
1988
 
11.08 1,497.7 0.74% 9.00%
 

1975
 
11.35 87.6 12.96% 8.03%
 
1989
 
24.40 1,541.3 1.58% 7.97%
 

1976
 
profit 102.6 less than zero 7.30%
 
1990
 
26.65 1,637.3 1.63% 8.24%
 

1977
 
profit 139.0 less than zero 7.97%
 
1991
 
119.59 1,895.0 6.31% 7.40%
 

1978
 
profit 190.4 less than zero 8.93%
 
1992
 
108.96 2,290.4 4.76% 7.39%
 

1979
 
profit 227.3 less than zero 10.08%
 
1993
 
profit 2,624.7 less than zero 6.35%
 

1980
 
profit 237.0 less than zero 11.94%
 
 
 
 
 

As you can see, in our insurance operation last year we had the use of $2.6 billion at no cost; in fact we were paid $31 million, our underwriting profit, to hold these funds. This sounds good - is good - but is far from as good as it sounds.

大家应该看得出,去年我们保险事业的营运结果,等于是让我们可以免费利用26亿美元的浮存金,而事实上,应该还要再加上3,100万美元的承保利益,这看起来相当不错,不过实际上并没有想象中的那么好。

We temper our enthusiasm because we write a large volume of "super-cat" policies (which other insurance and reinsurance companies buy to recover part of the losses they suffer from mega-catastrophes) and because last year we had no losses of consequence from this activity. As that suggests, the truly catastrophic Midwestern floods of 1993 did not trigger super-cat losses, the reason being that very few flood policies are purchased from private insurers.

我们试着大家冷静一下,因为我们接下的生意其中有一大部分属于霹雳猫保单 (这是其它保险公司或再保公司专门买来分担他们在发生重大意外灾害时,所可能造成的损失),同时去年这类的业务并没有出现重大的损失,意思是说,就连发生在1993年真正严重的中西部水灾也没有触及霹雳猫损失理赔的门槛,原因在于很少有私人保险公司会去购买水灾险。

It would be fallacious, however, to conclude from this single-year result that the super-cat business is a wonderful one, or even a satisfactory one. A simple example will illustrate the fallacy: Suppose there is an event that occurs 25 times in every century. If you annually give 5-for-1 odds against its occurrence that year, you will have many more winning years than losers. Indeed, you may go a straight six, seven or more years without loss. You also will eventually go broke.

这样很容易会产生错觉,并做出单一年度霹雳猫的成绩是相当不错且令人满意的一年,一个简单的例子足以说明一切,假设每个世纪平均都会发生25次重大的意外事件,而你每年都以以一赔五的比率赌它今年不会发生,则你赌对的年份可能远比赌错的年份多出许多,甚至你有可能连续赌对六年、七年,甚至是更多年,但我必须说,不管怎样,到最后你一定会以破产作为结局。

At Berkshire, we naturally believe we are obtaining adequate premiums and giving more like 3 1/2-for-1 odds. But there is no way for us - or anyone else - to calculate the true odds on super-cat coverages. In fact, it will take decades for us to find out whether our underwriting judgment has been sound.

在Berkshire,我们直觉地相信我们已经收到合理的保费,以类似以一赔三又二分之一的赌率接受赌注,当然没有人可以真正正确地算出霹雳猫保险真正的赔率,事实上,可能要等到几十年后,我们才能知道当初的判断是否正确。

What we do know is that when a loss comes, it's likely to be a lulu. There may well be years when Berkshire will suffer losses from the super-cat business equal to three or four times what we earned from it in 1993. When Hurricane Andrew blew in 1992, we paid out about $125 million. Because we've since expanded our super-cat business, a similar storm today could cost us $600 million.

不过我们确实知道,当损失真正降临时,铁定是件轰动的事,以后可能会发生三倍或四倍于我们在1993年所赚到的盈余那样大的意外事件,1992年Andrew飓风发生的那次,我们总共赔了1.25亿美元,时至今日由于我们已大幅扩大在霹雳猫保险的业务量,所以同样规模的飓风可能会造成我们六亿美元左右的理赔损失。

So far, we have been lucky in 1994. As I write this letter, we are estimating that our losses from the Los Angeles earthquake will be nominal. But if the quake had been a 7.5 instead of a 6.8, it would have been a different story.

1994年到目前为止,我们还算是幸运,在我写这封信时,我们因为洛杉矶大地震所造成的损失还算在正常范围之内,不过要是当时地震发生的规模不是6.8而是7.5的话,那么最后的结果就完全不是那么一回事了。

Berkshire is ideally positioned to write super-cat policies. In Ajit Jain, we have by far the best manager in this business. Additionally, companies writing these policies need enormous capital, and our net worth is ten to twenty times larger than that of our main competitors. In most lines of insurance, huge resources aren't that important: An insurer can diversify the risks it writes and, if necessary, can lay off risks to reduce concentration in its portfolio. That isn't possible in the super-cat business. So these competitors are forced into offering far smaller limits than those we can provide. Were they bolder, they would run the risk that a mega-catastrophe - or a confluence of smaller catastrophes - would wipe them out.

Berkshire本身很适合从事霹雳猫保险的业务,我们有业界最优秀的经理人Ajit Jain,此外从事这行需要相当雄厚的资金实力,在这点我们公司的净值大概是其他主要竞争对手的10到20倍,对大部分的保险业务而言,背后所拥有的资源还不是那么地重要,一家保险公司可以很轻易地就把它所承担的风险分散出去,若有必要,也可以降低险种集中度以减低风险,但是对霹雳猫保险这种特殊的保险就没有办法这样子做,所以其它的竞争同业只能被迫降低理赔的上限来因应,而要是他们胆敢承担更高的风险,则一个超大型的意外灾害或是连续发生几个较小型的灾害,就有可能让他们粉身碎骨。

One indication of our premier strength and reputation is that each of the four largest reinsurance companies in the world buys very significant reinsurance coverage from Berkshire. Better than anyone else, these giants understand that the test of a reinsurer is its ability and willingness to pay losses under trying circumstances, not its readiness to accept premiums when things look rosy.

有一件事情可以显示我们超强的竞争力与卓越的声誉,那就是全世界前四大再保公司全部都向Berkshire投保钜额的霹雳猫保险,这些大公司比谁都清楚,对于再保公司来说,真正要考验的是他们在困难的状况下,愿意且能够支付理赔金的能力与意愿,而绝对不是在太平时期勇于接受保费收入的意愿。

One caution: There has recently been a substantial increase in reinsurance capacity. Close to $5 billion of equity capital has been raised by reinsurers, almost all of them newly-formed entities. Naturally these new entrants are hungry to write business so that they can justify the projections they utilized in attracting capital. This new competition won't affect our 1994 operations; we're filled up there, primarily with business written in 1993. But we are now seeing signs of price deterioration. If this trend continues, we will resign ourselves to much-reduced volume, keeping ourselves available, though, for the large, sophisticated buyer who requires a super-cat insurer with large capacity and a sure ability to pay losses.

值得注意的是,近年来愿意接受再保业务的供给量大幅增加,再保业者总共募集了近50亿美元的资金来进军这类业务,且大部分都是新成立的公司,很自然的这些新进的业者急欲承接业务以证明当初他们吸收资金时所作的预估,这些新加入的竞争并不会影响我们1994年的营运,因为我们早已经接满了生意,主要是在1993年签下的,不过我们已经看到保费价格有恶化的趋势,如果这种情况持续下去,我们将会大幅降低承接的业务量,但随时准备好接下大型且复杂的保险业者所欲寻找确定能够理赔损失的保证。

In other areas of our insurance business, our homestate operation, led by Rod Eldred; our workers' compensation business, headed by Brad Kinstler; our credit-card operation, managed by the Kizer family; and National Indemnity's traditional auto and general liability business, led by Don Wurster, all achieved excellent results. In combination, these four units produced a significant underwriting profit and substantial float.

在我们其它保险业务方面,我们由Rod领导的住宅保险、Brad带领的员工退休保险以及由Kizer家族经营的信用卡保险业务,以及由Don所领导的国家产险所从事的传统汽车保险与一般责任险方面,总的来说,这四类业务都表现的相当不错,不但有承保获利,还贡献了相当大金额的保险浮存金。

All in all, we have a first-class insurance business. Though its results will be highly volatile, this operation possesses an intrinsic value that exceeds its book value by a large amount - larger, in fact, than is the case at any other Berkshire business.

总而言之,我们拥有第一流的保险事业,虽然他们的经营成果变化相当的大,但是其实质价值却远超过其帐面的价值,而事实上,在Berkshire其它事业的身上也有类似的情况。

Common Stock Investments股票投资

Below we list our common stockholdings having a value of over $250 million. A small portion of these investments belongs to subsidiaries of which Berkshire owns less than 100%.

下表是我们超过二亿五千万美元以上的普通股投资,一部份的投资系属于Berkshire关系企业所持有)。

12/31/93 Shares Company Cost Market (000s omitted)


2,000,000
 
93,400,000
 
13,654,600
 
34,250,000
 
4,350,000
 
24,000,000
 
38,335,000
 
1,727,765
 
6,791,218
 

Capital Cities/ABC, Inc.
 
The Coca-Cola Company
 
Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corp. ("Freddie Mac")
 
GEICO Corp.
 
General Dynamics Corp.
 
The Gillette Company
 
Guinness PLC
 
The Washington Post Company.
 
Wells Fargo & Company
 

$ 345,000
 
1,023,920
 
307,505
 
 45,713
 
94,938
 
600,000
 
333,019
 
9,731
 
423,680
 

$1,239,000
 
4,167,975
 
681,023
 
1,759,594
 
401,287
 
1,431,000
 
270,822
 
440,148
 
878,614
 

Considering the similarity of this year's list and the last, you may decide your management is hopelessly comatose. But we continue to think that it is usually foolish to part with an interest in a business that is both understandable and durably wonderful. Business interests of that kind are simply too hard to replace.

看到今年所列的投资与去年竟如此的相似,你可能会认为本公司的管理阶层实在是昏庸到无可救药的地步,不过我们还是坚持相信离开原本就熟悉且表现优异稳定的公司,实在是非常不智之举,这类的公司实在是还难找到更好的替代。

Interestingly, corporate managers have no trouble understanding that point when they are focusing on a business they operate: A parent company that owns a subsidiary with superb long-term economics is not likely to sell that entity regardless of price. "Why," the CEO would ask, "should I part with my crown jewel?" Yet that same CEO, when it comes to running his personal investment portfolio, will offhandedly - and even impetuously - move from business to business when presented with no more than superficial arguments by his broker for doing so. The worst of these is perhaps, "You can't go broke taking a profit." Can you imagine a CEO using this line to urge his board to sell a star subsidiary? In our view, what makes sense in business also makes sense in stocks: An investor should ordinarily hold a small piece of an outstanding business with the same tenacity that an owner would exhibit if he owned all of that business.

有趣的是企业经理人在认定何者才是自己本业时,从来就不会搞不清楚情况,母公司是不会单纯因为价格因素就将自己旗下最优秀的子公司给卖掉,公司总裁一定会问,为什么要把我皇冠上的珠宝给变卖掉,不过当场景转换到其个人的投资组合时,他却又会毫不犹豫地,甚至是情急地从这家公司换到另一家公司,靠的不过是股票经纪人肤浅的几句话语,其中最烂的一句当属,你不会因为获利而破产,你能想象要是一家公司的总裁用类似的方式建议董事会将最有潜力的子公司给卖掉时,就我个人的观点,适用于企业经营的原则也同样适用于股票投资,投资人在持有一家公司的股票所展现的韧性应当与一家公司的老板持有公司全部的股权一样。

Earlier I mentioned the financial results that could have been achieved by investing $40 in The Coca-Cola Co. in 1919. In 1938, more than 50 years after the introduction of Coke, and long after the drink was firmly established as an American icon, Fortune did an excellent story on the company. In the second paragraph the writer reported: "Several times every year a weighty and serious investor looks long and with profound respect at Coca-Cola'srecord, but comes regretfully to the conclusion that he is looking too late. The specters of saturation and competition rise before him."

先前我曾经提到若是在1919年以40美元投资可口可乐会获得怎样的成果, 1938年在可乐问世达50年且早已成为代表美国的产品之后,财富杂志对该公司做了一次详尽的专访,在文章的第二段作者写到:每年都会有许多重量型的投资人看好可口可乐,并对于其过去的辉煌记录表示敬意,但也都做下自己太晚发现的结论,认为该公司已达巅峰,前方的道路充满了竞争与挑战。

Yes, competition there was in 1938 and in 1993 as well. But it's worth noting that in 1938 The Coca-Cola Co. sold 207 million cases of soft drinks (if its gallonage then is converted into the 192-ounce cases used for measurement today) and in 1993 it sold about 10.7 billion cases, a 50-fold increase in physical volume from a company that in 1938 was already dominant in its very major industry. Nor was the party over in 1938 for an investor: Though the $40 invested in 1919 in one share had (with dividends reinvested) turned into $3,277 by the end of 1938, a fresh $40 then invested in Coca-Cola stock would have grown to $25,000 by yearend 1993.

没错,1938年确实充满了竞争,而1993年也是,不过值得注意的是1938年可口可乐一年总共卖出二亿箱的饮料(若是将当时加仑装改成现在192盎斯的箱子),但是到了1993年该公司一年卖出饮料高达107亿箱,对这家当时已经成为市场领导者的公司,在后来将近50的期间总共又成长了50倍,对于1938年加入的投资者来说,Party根本还没有结束,虽然在1919年投资40美元在可口可乐股票的投资人(含将所收到的股利再投资),到了1938年可获得3,277美元,但是若是在1938年重新以40美元投资可口可乐股票,时至1993年底,还是照样可以成长到25,000美元。

I can't resist one more quote from that 1938 Fortune story: "It would be hard to name any company comparable in size to Coca-Cola and selling, as Coca-Cola does, an unchanged product that can point to a ten-year record anything like Coca-Cola's." In the 55 years that have since passed, Coke's product line has broadened somewhat, but it's remarkable how well that description still fits.

我忍不住想要在引用1938年财富杂志的报导,「实在是很难在找到像可口可乐这样规模而且又能持续十年保持不变的产品内容」,如今又过了55个年头,可口可乐的产品线虽然变得更广泛,但令人印象深刻的是这种形容词还依旧适用。

Charlie and I decided long ago that in an investment lifetime it's just too hard to make hundreds of smart decisions. That judgment became ever more compelling as Berkshire's capital mushroomed and the universe of investments that could significantly affect our results shrank dramatically. Therefore, we adopted a strategy that required our being smart - and not too smart at that - only a very few times. Indeed, we'll now settle for one good idea a year. (Charlie says it's my turn.)

查理跟我老早以前便明了要一个人的投资生涯中,做出上百个小一点投资决策是件很辛苦的一件事,这种想法随着Berkshire资金规模日益扩大而益形明显,而放眼投资世界中,可以大幅影响本公司投资成效的机会已越来越少,因此我们决定采取一种只要求自己在少数的时候够聪明就好,而不是每回都要非常的聪明,所以我们现在只要求每年出现一次好的投资主意就可以了,(查理提醒我今年该轮到我)。

The strategy we've adopted precludes our following standard diversification dogma. Many pundits would therefore say the strategy must be riskier than that employed by more conventional investors. We disagree. We believe that a policy of portfolio concentration may well decrease risk if it raises, as it should, both the intensity with which an investor thinks about a business and the comfort-level he must feel with its economic characteristics before buying into it. In stating this opinion, we define risk, using dictionary terms, as "the possibility of loss or injury."

我们采取的这种策略排除了依照普通分散风险的教条,许多学者便会言之凿凿说我们这种策略比起一般传统的投资风险要高的许多,这点我们不敢苟同,我们相信集中持股的做法同样可以大幅降低风险,只要投资人在买进股份之前,能够加强本身对于企业的认知以及对于竞争能力熟悉的程度,在这里我们将风险定义,与一般字典里的一样,系指损失或受伤的可能性。

Academics, however, like to define investment "risk" differently, averring that it is the relative volatility of a stock or portfolio of stocks - that is, their volatility as compared to that of a large universe of stocks. Employing data bases and statistical skills, these academics compute with precision the "beta" of a stock - its relative volatility in the past - and then build arcane investment and capital-allocation theories around this calculation. In their hunger for a single statistic to measure risk, however, they forget a fundamental principle: It is better to be approximately right than precisely wrong.

然而在学术界,却喜欢将投资的风险给予不同的定义,坚持把它当作是股票价格相对波动的程度,也就是个别投资相较于全体投资波动的幅度,运用数据库与统计方法,这些学者能够计算出一只股票"精确"的Beta值,代表其过去相对波动的幅度,然后根据这项公式建立一套晦涩难解的投资与资金分配理论,为了渴望找出可以衡量风险的单一统计值,但他们却忘了一项基本的原则,宁愿大概对,也不要完全错。

For owners of a business - and that's the way we think of shareholders - the academics' definition of risk is far off the mark, so much so that it produces absurdities. For example, under beta-based theory, a stock that has dropped very sharply compared to the market - as had Washington Post when we bought it in 1973 - becomes "riskier" at the lower price than it was at the higher price. Would that description have then made any sense to someone who was offered the entire company at a vastly-reduced price?

对于企业的所有权人来说,这是我们认为公司股东应该有的想法,学术界对于风险的定义实在是有点离谱,甚至于有点荒谬,举例来说,根据Beta理论,若是有一种股票的价格相对于大盘下跌的幅度更高,就像是我们在1973年买进华盛顿邮报股份时一样,那么其风险远比原来高股价时还要更高,那么要是哪天有人愿意以极低的价格把整家公司卖给你时,你是否也会认为这样的风险太高,而予以拒绝呢?

In fact, the true investor welcomes volatility. Ben Graham explained why in Chapter 8 of The Intelligent Investor. There he introduced "Mr. Market," an obliging fellow who shows up every day to either buy from you or sell to you, whichever you wish. The more manic-depressive this chap is, the greater the opportunities available to the investor. That's true because a wildly fluctuating market means that irrationally low prices will periodically be attached to solid businesses. It is impossible to see how the availability of such prices can be thought of as increasing the hazards for an investor who is totally free to either ignore the market or exploit its folly.

事实上,真正的投资人喜欢波动都还来不及,班哲明.葛拉汉在智能型投资人一书的第八章便有所解释,他引用了市场先生理论,市场先生每天都会出现在你面前,只要你愿意都可以从他那里买进或卖出你的投资,只要他老兄越沮丧,投资人拥有的机会也就越多,这是由于只要市场波动的幅度越大,一些超低的价格就更有机会会出现在一些好公司身上,很难想象这种低价的优惠会被投资人视为对其有害,对于投资人来说,你完全可以无视于他的存在或是好好地利用这种愚蠢的行为。

In assessing risk, a beta purist will disdain examining what a company produces, what its competitors are doing, or how much borrowed money the business employs. He may even prefer not to know the company's name. What he treasures is the price history of its stock. In contrast, we'll happily forgo knowing the price history and instead will seek whatever information will further our understanding of the company's business. After we buy a stock, consequently, we would not be disturbed if markets closed for a year or two. We don't need a daily quote on our 100% position in See's or H. H. Brown to validate our well-being. Why, then, should we need a quote on our 7% interest in Coke?

在评估风险时,Beta理论学者根本就不屑于了解这家公司到底是在做什么,他的竞争对手在干嘛,或是他们到底借了多少钱来营运,他们甚至不愿意知道公司的名字叫什么,他们在乎的只是这家公司的历史股价,相对地,我们很愿意不管这家公司过去股价的历史,反而希望尽量能够得到有助于我们了解这家公司的资讯,另外在我们买进股份之后,我们一点也不在意这家公司的股份在未来的一、两年内是否有交易,就像是我们根本就不需要持有100%股权的喜斯糖果或是布朗鞋业的股票报价来证明我们的权益是否存在,同样地我们也不需要持有7%的可口可乐每日的股票行情。

In our opinion, the real risk that an investor must assess is whether his aggregate after-tax receipts from an investment (including those he receives on sale) will, over his prospective holding period, give him at least as much purchasing power as he had to begin with, plus a modest rate of interest on that initial stake. Though this risk cannot be calculated with engineering precision, it can in some cases be judged with a degree of accuracy that is useful. The primary factors bearing upon this evaluation are:

我们认为投资人应该真正评估的风险是他们从一项投资在其预计持有的期间内所收到的税后收入加总(也包含出售股份所得),是否能够让他保有原来投资时拥有的购买力,再加上合理的利率,虽然这样的风险无法做到像工程般的精确,但它至少可以做到足以做出有效判断的的程度,在做评估时主要的因素有下列几点︰

1) The certainty with which the long-term economic characteristics of the business can be evaluated;

1)这家公司长期竞争能力可以衡量的程度

2) The certainty with which management can be evaluated, both as to its ability to realize the full potential of the business and to wisely employ its cash flows;

2)这家公司管理阶层发挥公司潜能以及有效运用现金可以衡量的程度

3) The certainty with which management can be counted on to channel the rewards from the business to the shareholders rather than to itself;

3)这家公司管理阶层将企业获得的利益确实回报给股东而非中饱私囊可以衡量的程度

4) The purchase price of the business;

4)买进这家企业的价格

5) The levels of taxation and inflation that will be experienced and that will determine the degree by which an investor's purchasing-power return is reduced from his gross return.

5)投资人的净购买力所得,须考虑税负与通货膨胀等因素必须从投资收益总额中扣除的部份

These factors will probably strike many analysts as unbearably fuzzy, since they cannot be extracted from a data base of any kind. But the difficulty of precisely quantifying these matters does not negate their importance nor is it insuperable. Just as Justice Stewart found it impossible to formulate a test for obscenity but nevertheless asserted, "I know it when I see it," so also can investors - in an inexact but useful way - "see" the risks inherent in certain investments without reference to complex equations or price histories.

这些因素对于许多分析师来说,可能是丈二金刚摸不着头脑,因为他们根本无法从现有的数据库中找到这些信息,但是取得这些精确数字的难度高并不代表他们就不重要或是无法克服,就像是司法正义一样,Stewart法官发现他根本无法找到何谓猥亵的标准,不过他还是坚称,只要我一看到就知道是不是,同样地对于投资人来说,不需靠精确的公式或是股价历史,而只要运用不太精确但却有用的方式,就可以看到潜藏在某些投资里的风险。

Is it really so difficult to conclude that Coca-Cola and Gillette possess far less business risk over the long term than, say, any computer company or retailer? Worldwide, Coke sells about 44% of all soft drinks, and Gillette has more than a 60% share (in value) of the blade market. Leaving aside chewing gum, in which Wrigley is dominant, I know of no other significant businesses in which the leading company has long enjoyed such global power.

就长期而言,可口可乐与吉列所面临的产业风险,要比任何计算机公司或是通路商或小得多,可口可乐占全世界饮料销售量的44%,吉列则拥有60%的刮胡刀市场占有率(以销售额计),除了称霸口香糖的箭牌公司之外,我看不出还有那家公司可以像他们一样长期以来享有傲视全球的竞争力。

Moreover, both Coke and Gillette have actually increased their worldwide shares of market in recent years. The might of their brand names, the attributes of their products, and the strength of their distribution systems give them an enormous competitive advantage, setting up a protective moat around their economic castles. The average company, in contrast, does battle daily without any such means of protection. As Peter Lynch says, stocks of companies selling commodity-like products should come with a warning label: "Competition may prove hazardous to human wealth."

更重要的,可口可乐与吉列近年来也确实一点一滴地在增加他们全球市场的占有率,品牌的力量、产品的特质与配销通路的优势,使得他们拥有超强的竞争力,就像是树立起高耸的护城河来保卫其经济城堡,相对的,一般公司却要每天耗尽心思去打没有意义的游击战,就像是彼得.林区所说的,对于那些只会销售量贩式产品的公司来说,大家应该在其股票上加印这句警语-「竞争可能有害于人类的利益」。

The competitive strengths of a Coke or Gillette are obvious to

even the casual observer of business. Yet the beta of their stocks is similar to that of a great many run-of-the-mill companies who possess little or no competitive advantage. Should we conclude from this similarity that the competitive strength of Coke and Gillette gains them nothing when business risk is being measured? Or should we conclude that the risk in owning a piece of a company - its stock - is somehow divorced from the long-term risk inherent in its business operations? We believe neither conclusion makes sense and that equating beta with investment risk also makes no sense.

可口可乐与吉列的竞争力在一般产业观察家眼中实在是显而易见的,然而其股票的Beta值却与一般平庸、完全没有竞争优势的公司相似,难道只因为这样我们就该认为在衡量公司所面临的产业风险时,完全不须考虑他们所享有的竞争优势吗? 或者就可以说持有一家公司部份所有权-也就是股票的风险,与公司长期所面临的营运风险一点关系都没有,我们认为这些说法,包含衡量投资风险的Beta公式在内,一点道理都没有。

The theoretician bred on beta has no mechanism for differentiating the risk inherent in, say, a single-product toy company selling pet rocks or hula hoops from that of another toy company whose sole product is Monopoly or Barbie. But it's quite possible for ordinary investors to make such distinctions if they have a reasonable understanding of consumer behavior and the factors that create long-term competitive strength or weakness. Obviously, every investor will make mistakes. But by confining himself to a relatively few, easy-to-understand cases, a reasonably intelligent, informed and diligent person can judge investment risks with a useful degree of accuracy.

Beta学者所架构的理论根本就没有能力去分辨,销售宠物玩具或呼拉圈的玩具公司与销售大富翁或芭比娃娃的玩具公司,所隐藏的风险有何不同? 但对一般普通的投资人来说,只要他略懂得消费者行为以及形成企业长期竞争优势或弱势的原因的话,就可以很明确的看出两者的差别,当然每个投资人都会犯错,但只要将自己集中在相对少数,容易了解的投资个案上,一个理性、知性与耐性兼具的投资人一定能够将投资风险限定在可接受的范围之内。

In many industries, of course, Charlie and I can't determine whether we are dealing with a "pet rock" or a "Barbie." We couldn't solve this problem, moreover, even if we were to spend years intensely studying those industries. Sometimes our own intellectual shortcomings would stand in the way of understanding, and in other cases the nature of the industry would be the roadblock. For example, a business that must deal with fast-moving technology is not going to lend itself to reliable evaluations of its long-term economics. Did we foresee thirty years ago what would transpire in the television-manufacturing or computer industries? Of course not. (Nor did most of the investors and corporate managers who enthusiastically entered those industries.) Why, then, should Charlie and I now think we can predict the future of other rapidly-evolving businesses? We'll stick instead with the easy cases. Why search for a needle buried in a haystack when one is sitting in plain sight?

当然有许多产业,连查理或是我可能都无法判断到底我们在玩的是宠物玩具或芭比娃娃,甚至在花了许多年时间努力的研究这些产业之后,我们还是无法解决这个问题,有时是因为我们本身智识上的缺陷,阻碍了我们对事情的了解,有时则是因为产业特性的关系,例如对于一家随时都比须面临快速变迁技术的公司来说,我们根本就无法对其长期的竞争力做出任何的评断,人类在三十年前,是否就能预知现在电视制造或计算机产业的演进,当然不能,就算是大部分钻研于这方面领域的投资人与企业经理人也没有办法,那么为什么查理跟我要觉得应该要有去预测其它产业快速变迁前景的能力呢? 我们宁愿挑些简单一点的,一个人坐的舒舒服服就好了,为什么还要费事去挨稻草里的针呢?

Of course, some investment strategies - for instance, our efforts in arbitrage over the years - require wide diversification. If significant risk exists in a single transaction, overall risk should be reduced by making that purchase one of many mutually-independent commitments. Thus, you may consciously purchase a risky investment - one that indeed has a significant possibility of causing loss or injury - if you believe that your gain, weighted for probabilities, considerably exceeds your loss, comparably weighted, and if you can commit to a number of similar, but unrelated opportunities. Most venture capitalists employ this strategy. Should you choose to pursue this course, you should adopt the outlook of the casino that owns a roulette wheel, which will want to see lots of action because it is favored by probabilities, but will refuse to accept a single, huge bet.

当然,有些投资策略,例如我们从事多年的套利活动,就必须将风险分散,若是单一交易的风险过高,就比须将资源分散到几个各自独立的个案之上,如此一来,虽然每个个案都有可能导致损失或伤害,但只要你确信每个独立的个案经过机率的加权平均能够让你获致满意的报酬就行了,许多创业投资者用的就是这种方法,若是你也打算这样做的话,记得采取与赌场老板搞轮盘游戏同样的心态,那就是鼓励大家持续不断的下注,因为长期而言,机率对庄家有利,但千万要拒绝单一一次的大赌注。

Another situation requiring wide diversification occurs when an investor who does not understand the economics of specific businesses nevertheless believes it in his interest to be a long-term owner of American industry. That investor should both own a large number of equities and space out his purchases. By periodically investing in an index fund, for example, the know-nothing investor can actually out-perform most investment professionals. Paradoxically, when "dumb" money acknowledges its limitations, it ceases to be dumb.

另外一种需要分散风险的特殊情况是,当投资人并没有对任何单一产业有特别的熟悉,不过他却对美国整体产业前景有信心,则这类的投资人应该分散持有许多公司的股份,同时将投入的时点拉长,例如,透过定期投资指数基金,一个什么都不懂的投资人通常都能打败大部分的专业经理人,很奇怪的是,当愚昧的金钱了解到自己的极限之后,它就不再愚昧了。

On the other hand, if you are a know-something investor, able to understand business economics and to find five to ten sensibly-priced companies that possess important long-term competitive advantages, conventional diversification makes no sense for you. It is apt simply to hurt your results and increase your risk. I cannot understand why an investor of that sort elects to put money into a business that is his 20th favorite rather than simply adding that money to his top choices - the businesses he understands best and that present the least risk, along with the greatest profit potential. In the words of the prophet Mae West: "Too much of a good thing can be wonderful."

另一方面,若是你是稍具常识的投资人,能够了解产业经济的话,应该就能够找出五到十家股价合理并享有长期竞争优势的公司,此时一般分散风险的理论对你来说就一点意义也没有,要是那样做反而会伤害到你的投资成果并增加你的风险,我实在不了解那些投资人为什么要把钱摆在他排名第20的股票上,而不是把钱集中在排名最前面,最熟悉了解同时风险最小,获利可能最大的投资之上,或许这就是先知梅西卫斯特所说的,「好事物越多,就越完美」。

Corporate Governance企业治理

At our annual meetings, someone usually asks "What happens to this place if you get hit by a truck?" I'm glad they are still asking the question in this form. It won't be too long before the query becomes: "What happens to this place if you don't get hit by a truck?"

在年度的股东会上,有人常常会问︰「要是那天你不幸被车撞到,该怎么办?」我只能说很庆幸他们还是在问这样的问题,而不是「要是那天你不被车撞到,我们该怎么办?」。

Such questions, in any event, raise a reason for me to discuss corporate governance, a hot topic during the past year. In general, I believe that directors have stiffened their spines recently and that shareholders are now being treated somewhat more like true owners than was the case not long ago. Commentators on corporate governance, however, seldom make any distinction among three fundamentally different manager/owner situations that exist in publicly-held companies. Though the legal responsibility of directors is identical throughout, their ability to effect change differs in each of the cases. Attention usually falls on the first case, because it prevails on the corporate scene. Since Berkshire falls into the second category, however, and will someday fall into the third, we will discuss all three variations.

这样的问题让我有机会谈谈近年来相当热门的话题-公司治理,首先我相信最近许多公司的董事们已开始试着把他们的腰杆打直,而现在的投资人比起以前来说,也慢慢地被公司当作真正的拥有人来对待,但是评论专家并没有仔细地去区别目前公开上市公司三种截然不同的经营权与所有权形态,虽然在法律上,董事们应该承担的责任是责无旁贷的,但他们能发挥影响力进行改变的程度却有很大的不同,大家通常都把注意力摆在第一类的案例之上,因为这是目前一般企业的常态,但由于Berkshire本身是属于第二类,甚至有一天会变成第三类,所以在这里我们有必要讨论一下三者的不同。

The first, and by far most common, board situation is one in which a corporation has no controlling shareholder. In that case, I believe directors should behave as if there is a single absentee owner, whose long-term interest they should try to further in all proper ways. Unfortunately, "long-term" gives directors a lot of wiggle room. If they lack either integrity or the ability to think independently, directors can do great violence to shareholders while still claiming to be acting in their long-term interest. But assume the board is functioning well and must deal with a management that is mediocre or worse. Directors then have the responsibility for changing that management, just as an intelligent owner would do if he were present. And if able but greedy managers over-reach and try to dip too deeply into the shareholders' pockets, directors must slap their hands.

首先是第一类,也是目前最普遍的一类,在公司的股权结构中,并没有一个具掌控能力的大股东,在这种情况下,我相信董事会的行为应该要像是公司有一个因事未出席的大股东一样,在各种情况下,都要能够确保这位虚拟大股东的长期利益不会受到损害,然而很不幸的是,所谓的长期利益,反而给了董事会很大的弹性操作空间,而假设董事会运作尚称顺畅,不过经营阶层却很平庸甚至差劲时,那么董事会就必须负起责任将经营阶层换掉,就好象一般公司老板会做的决定一样,另外要是经营阶层能力尚可,只不过过于贪心,不时地想要从股东的口袋里捞钱,那么董事会就必须适时地出手制止并给予警告。

In this plain-vanilla case, a director who sees something he doesn't like should attempt to persuade the other directors of his views. If he is successful, the board will have the muscle to make the appropriate change. Suppose, though, that the unhappy director can't get other directors to agree with him. He should then feel free to make his views known to the absentee owners. Directors seldom do that, of course. The temperament of many directors would in fact be incompatible with critical behavior of that sort. But I see nothing improper in such actions, assuming the issues are serious. Naturally, the complaining director can expect a vigorous rebuttal from the unpersuaded directors, a prospect that should discourage the dissenter from pursuing trivial or non-rational causes.

在这种一般常见的情况下,当个别董事发觉有不合理的现象时,应该试着说服其他董事有关他的看法,若能够成功,那么董事会就有能力做出适当的决定,但是假设要是这位落寞的董事孤掌难鸣,无法获得其它董事的支持,那么他就应该要让没能出席的股东知道他的看法,当然很少有董事真的这样做,很多的董事事实上并没有足够的胆识敢做这样大胆的动作,但我却认为这样的举动并没有什么不妥,当然假设问题真的很严重的话,自然而然发出不平之鸣的董事一定会遭到其他不认同看法的董事严正的驳斥,认为反对的董事不要在枝微末节或是非理性的原因上捣乱。

For the boards just discussed, I believe the directors ought to be relatively few in number - say, ten or less - and ought to come mostly from the outside. The outside board members should establish standards for the CEO's performance and should also periodically meet, without his being present, to evaluate his performance against those standards.

对于前述讨论的董事会形态,我认为董事的人数不必太多,最好是十个以内,同时大部分成员应该从外部遴选,而外部董事应该要能够建立对CEO表现的评核制度,并定期聚会,在CEO不在场的情况下,依据这些原则评断其表现。

The requisites for board membership should be business savvy, interest in the job, and owner-orientation. Too often, directors are selected simply because they are prominent or add diversity to the board. That practice is a mistake. Furthermore, mistakes in selecting directors are particularly serious because appointments are so hard to undo: The pleasant but vacuous director need never worry about job security.

至于董事会成员遴选的条件,并须具备商业经验、对这项角色有兴趣同时以股东利益为导向,只是目前大部分被遴选出来的董事,大多是因为他们的社会地位或只是为了增加董事会成员的多样化,这样的做法是错误的,更有甚至,这种错误还有后遗症,因为董事被任命之后就很难再加以撤消,好说话且没有意见的董事是不怕找不到位置的。
The second case is that existing at Berkshire, where the controlling owner is also the manager. At some companies, this arrangement is facilitated by the existence of two classes of stock endowed with disproportionate voting power. In these situations, it's obvious that the board does not act as an agent between owners and management and that the directors cannot effect chang,e except through persuasion. Therefore, if the owner/manager is mediocre or worse - or is over-reaching - there is little a director can do about it except object. If the directors having no connections to the owner/manager make a unified argument, it may well have some effect. More likely it will not.

第二种就像是发生在Berkshire的,具控制权的大股东本身也是经营阶层,在某些公司,经过特殊的安排,将公司的股权按投票权重的不同分成两类,也会产生这种情况,在这种情况下,很明显的董事会并非所有权人与经营阶层之间的中介,且除非经由劝说,否则董事会很难发挥改变的影响力,也因此要是老板经营者本身的能力平庸或很差劲或不顾他人,则董事除了表示反对以外,别无他法,而要是与老板经营者没有关系的董事碰巧做出相同的结论,有时或许还有用,但大部分的状况下是无济于事的。

If change does not come, and the matter is sufficiently serious, the outside directors should resign. Their resignation will signal their doubts about management, and it will emphasize that no outsider is in a position to correct the owner/manager's shortcomings.

而要是公司无法做出改变,且情况演变的很严重时,外部董事就应该要辞职,外部董事的辞职等于是对现有的经营阶层投下反对票,同时凸显外部董事没有能力纠正老板经营者缺失的现象。

The third governance case occurs when there is a controlling owner who is not involved in management. This case, examples of which are Hershey Foods and Dow Jones, puts the outside directors in a potentially useful position. If they become unhappy with either the competence or integrity of the manager, they can go directly to the owner (who may also be on the board) and report their dissatisfaction. This situation is ideal for an outside director, since he need make his case only to a single, presumably interested owner, who can forthwith effect change if the argument is persuasive. Even so, the dissatisfied director has only that single course of action. If he remains unsatisfied about a critical matter, he has no choice but to resign.

第三种情况是公司拥有具控制权的大股东,但却不参与公司经营,这种特殊个案在现实社会中有Hershey食品与道琼公司等例子,公司能够充分运用外部董事的能力,若是董事们对于经营阶层的能力或品格感到不满意,他们可以直接向大股东反应(当然大股东可能也是董事成员),这种环境相当适合外部董事的发挥,因为他只需要将情况向单一且关心公司前景的所有权人报告,同时只要论点理由充分就可以马上发挥改变的效果,但即便如此,有意见的董事也只能有这样的选择管道,若是他对于特定事情的处理结果不满意,他还是只能辞职而别无其它选择。

Logically, the third case should be the most effective in insuring first-class management. In the second case the owner is not going to fire himself, and in the first case, directors often find it very difficult to deal with mediocrity or mild over-reaching. Unless the unhappy directors can win over a majority of the board - an awkward social and logistical task, particularly if management's behavior is merely odious, not egregious - their hands are effectively tied. In practice, directors trapped in situations of this kind usually convince themselves that by staying around they can do at least some good. Meanwhile, management proceeds unfettered.

理论上,第三种情况最能够确保一流的经营阶层存在,因为第二种情况,老板不可能把自己给Fire掉,而第一种情况,董事们通常很难与表现平庸

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